Home front during World War I

The home front during World War I covers the everyday lives, work, and changes in countries that were involved in that conflict. While soldiers fought on battlefields, many important things happened back home to support the war effort. People had to change how they lived and worked to help their countries.

Many millions of people died during the war, including soldiers and civilians. Some died because they did not get enough food, and many more were weakened by a worldwide sickness called the Spanish flu pandemic that happened near the end of the war.

Countries had to use all of their resources to help the war. This meant building many weapons, growing enough food, and finding new ways to move supplies. Women took on many jobs that men used to do, which helped change their roles in society. Some countries gave women the right to vote because of their important work during the war.

Financial costs

Further information: Economic history of World War I

The war cost a lot of money—about $80 billion in the money of 1913, which is like $2.47 trillion today. This number only counts what countries spent during the war, not after.

Countries spent different amounts. Britain spent about $21.2 billion, France about $10.1 billion, Italy about $4.5 billion, the United States about $12.3 billion, and Russia about $7.7 billion. Some countries also borrowed money from others to help pay for the war. For example, the United States lent money to Britain, France, Italy, and Russia. Britain also lent money to other allies.

Britain

Main articles: History of the United Kingdom during World War I and British entry into World War I

When World War I began, people across Britain felt strong loyalty to their country, and many class differences faded during the years of fighting. However, in Ireland, Catholics in the south quickly began asking for full independence after a failed rebellion in 1916. Northern Ireland stayed loyal to the British crown.

Britain had the largest and most efficient financial system in the world in 1914. The country needed to change its economy to produce weapons and supplies for the war. This required big changes in how the government, businesses, workers, and the military worked together. Factories worked hard to make weapons, and many people made big sacrifices to help defeat the enemy.

In 1915, David Lloyd George became in charge of making weapons, and he greatly increased the number of artillery shells made. He later became the leader of the country and helped organize the war effort. During the war, Germans used airships to drop bombs on cities, but people kept their spirits up, partly because of messages in newspapers.

Female munition workers filling shells

Because there were not enough skilled workers, factories changed their work so that women and less skilled men could help. This helped war industries grow quickly. David Lloyd George made an agreement with worker groups, and they supported the war effort even with these changes.

The war brought many changes to British society. New job opportunities opened up for workers, and women gained more rights. The Labour Party grew stronger, and there was more equality between different social classes. Many people worked together to support those in need during the war.

Scotland

Scotland played an important role in World War I. With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the war. Many came from cities like Dundee, where there were fewer jobs for men because the jute industry employed mostly women. After the government promised to support families of soldiers who were killed or hurt, more men joined up. By 1916, everyone had to join the army if called.

Scottish soldiers were part of many battles and faced heavy losses. In places like the Island of Lewis and Harris, a large part of the population served or died in the war. Shipyards and factories in areas like Glasgow were busy making weapons and ships for the war.

Politics

Female workers in a gas mask factory, Holloway, London, 1918

Women

Prime Minister David Lloyd George recognized how important women were to the war effort. Women took on many new jobs to help with the war, and their efforts were vital to Britain’s success. The war paused the militant movement for women’s voting rights, and women were given the right to vote in 1918, though only under certain conditions. Later, in 1928, women in Britain finally gained the same voting rights as men.

British Empire

The British Empire played a big role in supporting the war effort. It provided food, materials, naval bases, and many soldiers and workers for Britain.

Canada

A Canadian recruiting poster featuring names of French battlefields (but an English text)

Canada sent many soldiers to fight, especially in the trenches of the Western Front. There were many casualties, and the government eventually needed to require people to serve, which caused disagreements. Some people in Canada were not trusted because of their backgrounds, and many were sent to special camps.

Australia

Australia also sent many soldiers to fight. Most of them were volunteers, but there was much debate about requiring service. The war brought changes to Australia, including more government control over the economy and fears about people from other countries. The famous Gallipoli campaign became a key part of Australia’s national story.

An Australian Kookaburra active service postcard

New Zealand

New Zealand supported the war strongly and sent many soldiers, including some who were required to serve. Like Australia, the Gallipoli campaign was very important to New Zealand’s memory of the war.

South Africa

Australian soldiers being fed by women prior to embarkation, circa 1916

South Africa had a mixed response to the war. Many people supported it, but there were also disagreements, especially among different groups. Some people hoped the war would improve their situation, but this did not happen after the war.

India

India, controlled by Britain at the time, provided a large number of soldiers and workers for the war. Many were sent to fight in different parts of the world. The war also brought changes to India, including the growth of groups working for independence.

Belgium

Main articles: Belgium in World War I and Rape of Belgium

Belgian refugees in Paris, 1914

When World War I began, most of Belgium was taken over by German soldiers. The German army acted very harshly, treating any attempt to fight back as wrong and unfair. They punished people very severely, even destroying buildings and causing many people to leave their homes. Many workers were taken to Germany to work in factories.

The Germans took valuable things from Belgium, like machines, and left the country poor. After the worst actions, German officials took control and were strict but not usually violent. Many Belgians refused to help the Germans, which made life very quiet and slow during the war years. With help from neutral countries, especially the United States, food and medical supplies were sent to help the people of Belgium.

Belgian Congo

Belgium's colony, Belgian Congo, was important for its resources. While rubber was still important, new resources like copper became more valuable. Copper mining grew a lot during the war, and other resources like diamonds and gold also increased. New transportation lines were built to move these resources to other countries.

France

Main articles: French entry into World War I and French Third Republic § First World War

Production of rocket warheads in the department of Seine-Maritime, 1914

Many French thinkers supported the war to recover land and pride lost to Germany after the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. One famous writer, Romain Rolland, chose not to support the war and moved to Switzerland. After a peaceful leader named Jean Jaurès was killed when the war began, many French people joined together to fight.

By 1917, soldiers and people at home were tired of the long war. Some soldiers refused to fight because they felt the battles were too dangerous and conditions were very hard. They also worried about their families back home.

The war hurt France’s factories and economy, especially in areas where Germany invaded. Help came from the United States, which sent food, money, and many soldiers. These soldiers spent money on food and building supplies, which helped the economy.

Female carpenters working at the Tarrant Hut Workshops, near Calais, 26 June 1918

The war caused great damage, costing more than all of France’s money in 1913. The government owed a lot more than before, and prices rose sharply. Newspapers had trouble publishing because many young workers were away at war, and there was less paper and ink. The government watched newspapers closely and sometimes removed parts of stories.

In 1917, Georges Clemenceau became the leader of France. He worked hard to lift people’s spirits and keep them strong for the remaining time of the war. He arrested a former leader, Joseph Caillaux, for suggesting that France should make peace instead of continuing to fight. Clemenceau called for fighting until the very end.

Russia

Main articles: Russian entry into World War I, History of Russia (1892–1917), and Russian Revolution

In 1914, Russia was struggling to fight World War I. The country had a small industry, poor finances, and rural areas that could barely feed themselves. Military failures and poor leadership made many people unhappy with the government. Germany controlled key seas, stopping Russia from getting supplies or selling goods. By mid-1915, food and fuel became hard to find, casualties rose, and prices went up. Workers went on strike, and farmers wanted land changes. In 1916, a mystic named Grigory Rasputin had too much power over the Tsar and his wife until he was killed.

In early 1917, big strikes happened, and the army joined the people. The Tsar stepped down, and Alexander Kerensky took over. But later that year, Lenin and the Bolsheviks took control. In 1918, they signed a treaty that let Germany control parts of Eastern Europe, and Russia faced a long civil war.

Even though the central government was struggling, local groups took action. They helped distribute food, set up hospitals, and care for refugees, driven by patriotism, practical needs, and political views.

Italy

See also: History of Italy § First World War, and Italy in World War I

Italian women employed by the British Army unloading artillery ammunition at a railhead dump in northern Italy, 1918

Italy chose not to join its allies, Germany and Austria, at the start of World War I and stayed neutral at first. Many people in Italy wanted peace, but others believed this was a chance to claim land controlled by Austria. Italy finally agreed to fight on the side of Britain and France if it could gain territory.

The Italian army faced many challenges, with poor leadership and lacking modern weapons. Battles often ended without a clear winner. Italy later declared war on Germany, which helped Austria. Many Italian soldiers were hurt or lost their lives during the war, and the country needed help from its allies to keep its economy running.

United States

Main articles: United States home front during World War I and American entry into World War I

Navy poster by Howard Chandler Christy

President Woodrow Wilson led the United States during World War I. He first tried to keep the country neutral but warned Germany that attacking American ships would lead to war. When Germany continued its attacks, the United States joined the war in April 1917. The country had many resources but needed time to prepare for the war.

Millions of men and women volunteered or were drafted to serve. By summer 1918, American soldiers arrived in France, helping to turn the tide toward an Allied victory in November 1918. The government used campaigns to encourage support for the war and sold bonds to fund the effort. Some people who spoke against the war were punished under new laws. Wilson also played a key role in shaping the peace agreement after the war.

Germany

Main articles: History of Germany during World War I and German entry into World War I

Interior of the Krupp steelworks in Essen, Germany, 1 December 1914

By 1915, Britain's navy had blocked food from reaching Germany, causing big problems for people living there. There were not enough farmers to grow food because many had gone to fight, and the trains could not carry food quickly enough. Coal was also hard to find. During the winter of 1916–1917, called the "turnip winter," people had to eat turnips, which are usually food for animals, because potatoes and meat were too scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens opened to help feed hungry people. Even soldiers got smaller meals. Because of not enough food, many people became weak and sick, and many more died than before the war.

As the war continued, people and soldiers felt less hopeful. But Germany tried to share what little food they had fairly. In late 1918, soldiers in the German Navy refused to follow orders, and protests spread across Germany. Leaders lost trust in the Kaiser, and he and other rulers left power. On November 9, 1918, a new government was announced, and soon after, the war ended with Germany’s defeat.

Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary, a largely rural empire, played an important role by providing soldiers and food for the war. Although it had a small industrial base, it was more urbanized and industrialized than its opponents like the Russian Empire, Serbia, and Romania. However, as the war continued, food and heating fuel became increasingly scarce. The number of pigs dropped dramatically, and supplies of meat were mostly used by the army. Hungary, with its strong farming sector, managed to have better food supplies than other areas.

As the war went on, people’s spirits lowered each year. Inflation rose sharply, wiping out the savings of many families. The war also took a heavy toll on the economy, using up a large part of the country’s wealth. Many soldiers were killed or wounded, affecting the workforce. The leaders of the army often took resources meant for civilians, leaving many people hungry while the army was well-supplied.

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was already weak by 1914 and had lost much of its land in Europe and North Africa. It still ruled over many people, including those in modern-day Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.

A group called the Young Turks took control and prepared the country for war. They created new groups to gain support and build a strong Turkish identity. When the war started, the leader asked Muslims in other countries to rise up against their rulers, but few did. Many Arabs turned against the Ottoman rulers and rebelled.

The Ottoman Empire faced big challenges during the war. Because it was blockaded and had poor transportation, it struggled to support both its people and its soldiers. Almost all men were required to join the military, which was very unpopular. Some could avoid service by paying a fee.

Balkans

Serbia

Serbia, a small country with a population of 4.6 million, was very effective at getting its people ready to fight during the war. It called up 350,000 men, but many were already worn out from earlier fights. Austria tried to invade twice in 1914 but was stopped both times with heavy losses on both sides. In 1915, Germany, Austria, and Bulgaria invaded Serbia. The Serbian army had to retreat quickly, and only 70,000 soldiers made it out. Serbia was taken over, but conditions were not too harsh because Austria paid for food.

France helped Serbia a lot. In 1918, French and Serbian forces moved up from Greece and freed Serbia, along with Montenegro and Vojvodina. The war caused many deaths in Serbia, with most of its soldiers and many civilians lost. After the war, Serbia joined with other groups to form the new Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later called Yugoslavia.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria, a poor country with 4.5 million people, wanted to take control of Macedonia but lost a fight for it in 1913. During World War I, Bulgaria stayed neutral at first but later joined the Central Powers in 1915, hoping to get Macedonia. It had a large army of 800,000 men, but the war was hard on the country. By 1918, soldiers lacked proper gear and food, and both troops and farmers rebelled. Bulgaria signed an armistice, giving up its gains and limiting its army. The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine in 1919 took away Bulgaria's conquests and demanded large payments.

Greece

Greece was tired from earlier wars and wanted to stay out of World War I, but its location made that difficult. There was a big disagreement between King Constantine I, who had ties to Germany, and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, who supported the Allies. Venizelos set up a small Greek government with Allied support. An Allied blockade forced the king to step down in 1917, and Greece joined the Allies. Greece became a base for many Allied soldiers. By the end of the war, Greece had about 5,000 casualties, and the disagreement between modernizers and traditionalists continued to affect its politics for many years.

Asia

China

Main article: History of the Republic of China

The leader Duan Qirui was very powerful in China. On 13 August 1917, he decided to fight against Germany and Austria-Hungary. People from China who were not enemies were kept safe, and their things were taken for the war. About 175,000 Chinese people chose to work in faraway places to help the countries fighting in the war. Sadly, some 10,000 of these workers did not come back, including over 500 who were on ships that sank. China did not send any soldiers to fight in the war.

Japan

Main articles: Japanese entry into World War I and Japan during World War I

Japan's military took over places that belonged to Germany in the Pacific and East Asia. They did not change their whole way of doing things to support the war. Some leaders in Japan wanted to use this time to become more powerful in China. They asked for help from Sun Yat-sen, who was living in Japan at the time, but they did not get much help. The navy in Japan decided by itself to take over some islands in the Pacific that used to belong to Germany. This helped the navy get more money and power.

Because prices went up a lot, people had trouble buying food. This caused some small protests in 1918. The government made many people arrested and stopped newspapers from writing about it. In late 1918, many people got very sick from a bad illness. About 250,000 people in Japan got sick, but fewer people died there than in other countries because some people had already gotten a milder version of the illness before. Health workers told people to stay away from others and used special ways to help people get better.