Inanna

Inanna was an important goddess in ancient times, worshipped by people in a land called Mesopotamia. She was known as the goddess of war, love, and many other powerful forces. People believed she brought both good and bad things to the world, and she was especially loved in a city named Uruk, where a big temple was built just for her.

Inanna had many names and forms, and she was respected by many different groups of people over hundreds of years. She was linked to the planet Venus and was often shown with lions and stars. Her stories, told through myths, show her as a strong and sometimes fierce goddess who enforced justice and took control of important places and powers.

One of her most famous stories tells of her journey to a dark place called the underworld, where she faced great danger but returned, changing the seasons with her husband Dumuzid. Her tales helped people understand the world around them and the powerful forces that shaped their lives.

Etymology

Scholars think that Inanna and Ishtar started as two different gods but became seen as the same goddess during the time of Sargon of Akkad. Inanna’s name might come from a Sumerian phrase meaning "Lady of Heaven." Some early experts thought Inanna might have been a god from a group of people called Proto-Euphratean before joining the Sumerian pantheon. This idea isn’t widely accepted today.

The name Ishtar was used in names from early and later times in Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia. It comes from a Semitic language and may be linked to the West Semitic god Attar. The morning star was seen as a male god of war, and the evening star as a female god of love. Even though the name Ishtar was masculine, the goddess stayed female because she was joined with Inanna.

Origins and development

Inanna is an important goddess from ancient Sumer. Scholars find her interesting because she has many different roles and powers. There are two main ideas about where she came from. One idea is that Inanna formed from combining several different Sumerian gods. Another idea is that Inanna was originally a god from a nearby land who joined the Sumerian gods later.

As early as the Uruk period (around 4000–3100 BCE), Inanna was linked to the city of Uruk. During this time, a special symbol of a ring-headed doorpost was connected to her. The Uruk Vase shows people bringing gifts to a female figure who stands in front of Inanna's symbol.

During the Akkadian period (around 2334–2154 BCE), Inanna became closely linked with another goddess named Ishtar. A poet named Enheduanna, daughter of the Akkadian ruler Sargon, wrote many poems about Inanna, helping to make her very popular. Main article: syncretism Semitic deity Uruk period Uruk Vase female figure cuneiform Jemdet Nasr period Larsa Zabalam Urum Arina Kesh Early Dynastic period Aga of Kish Lugal-kisalsi An Akkadian period Sargon of Akkad Enheduanna desert poplar Ebla Mari Sin Shamash Shapash

Worship

Inanna, the ancient Mesopotamian goddess, used a special symbol: a ring post made of reed. This symbol marked the entrance of temples and showed the boundary between everyday spaces and sacred places. Over time, this symbol became a special sign for Inanna in ancient writing.

Inanna was worshipped in many cities, with her most important temple located in Uruk, called the "House of Heaven." She was also honored in places like Nippur, Lagash, and Ur. During different periods, Inanna was seen as one of the most important gods in the region. Her worship spread from the Sumerians to the Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, who knew her as Ishtar.

Her temples were places where special people, known as priests, served her. These individuals played important roles in the religious life of the communities. Over time, Inanna became especially popular in Assyria, where she was highly respected and adored, particularly by women.

Iconography

The eight-pointed star was the main symbol of Inanna, also known as Ishtar. This symbol often appeared next to the solar disk, which belonged to her brother Shamash, and the crescent moon, which belonged to her father Sin. These symbols were used on important stones and buildings.

Lions were also important symbols for Inanna. They represented power and were shown on walls and doors, like the Ishtar Gate in Babylon. Doves were another symbol linked to Inanna, appearing on special objects in her temples. Inanna was also linked to the planet Venus, which moves across the sky in a special way that matches some stories about her.

Character

The Sumerians honoured Inanna as the goddess of both war and love. Unlike other gods, Inanna was always seeking more power and moving from one adventure to another. She was known for being young and full of energy.

Inanna was loved as the goddess of love, but she was not seen as a goddess of marriage or motherhood. People often called on her in their special prayers. She also played an important role as a goddess of war, and battles were sometimes called her "dance". She was strong and fierce in fighting, and had many powerful names that showed her strength.

Family

Inanna's twin brother was Utu, the god of the sun and justice. Inanna and Utu were very close in Sumerian stories. Inanna was usually thought to be the daughter of Nanna and his wife Ningal. Sometimes she was also linked to other gods like An, Enlil, or Enki, but these were often just ways to show respect.

Dumuzid, the god of shepherds, was often seen as Inanna's husband. Their story includes myths about Dumuzid going to the underworld, with Inanna playing different roles in these tales. Inanna was not usually said to have children, but in some stories, the god Shara is called her son, and the goddess Nanaya is sometimes thought of as her daughter. These links might just show closeness rather than real family ties.

Sukkal

Main article: Ninshubur

Inanna's helper and trusted advisor was the goddess Ninshubur. Ninshubur was very devoted to Inanna and was often mentioned close to her in stories and lists of gods. Other goddesses like Nanaya, Kanisurra, Gazbaba, and Bizila were also part of Inanna’s group of friends and followers.

Syncretism and influence on other deities

Inanna, the ancient Mesopotamian goddess, was often linked with many other goddesses over time. During the rule of Sargon and his successors, she became fully united with Ishtar. Many old hymns praised Inanna, and ancient god lists had special sections for goddesses similar to her. One big list, called An-Anum, had a whole tablet just for Ishtar’s equivalents and titles.

Later, Ishtar’s name was sometimes used to mean any goddess in Babylonia, and Inanna’s name was used in writing for another title, Bēltu. This led to more mix-ups between the two. For example, an old writing from Elam mentioned "Manzat-Ishtar," which could mean the goddess Manzat.

Specific examples

Ashtart

In places like Mari and Ebla, people used the names Ishtar and Ashtart almost interchangeably. But Ashtart, who came from western areas, did not share Ishtar’s connection to the stars. Lists and rituals from Ugarit linked the local goddess Ashtart with both Ishtar and another goddess named Ishara.

Ishara

Because of her link to Ishtar, the Syrian goddess Ishara began to be seen as a goddess of love in Mesopotamia, like Inanna. But in areas like Hurro-Hittite lands, Ishara was more connected to Allani, a goddess of the underworld, and also had a role in making promises official.

Nanaya

Nanaya was very closely tied to Inanna. Some believe her name was originally a special name for Inanna, meaning “My Inanna!” She was linked to love but also later took on aspects of war. In the city of Larsa, Inanna’s roles were shared among three goddesses: Inanna herself, Nanaya as the love goddess, and Ninsianna as the star goddess. Inanna/Ishtar and Nanaya were often mixed up in poems.

Ninegal

Ninegal started as her own goddess but later became a title for Inanna during the Old Babylonian period. In lists of gods, she appeared with the “Inanna group,” often next to Ninsianna.

Ninisina

Ninisina, a goddess of healing, became linked to Inanna for political reasons. When the city of Isin lost control of Uruk, connecting its protecting goddess to powerful Inanna helped solve a religious problem. So, in some stories, Ninisina was seen as a form of Inanna. There might have even been a special ceremony between Ninisina and the king of Isin.

Ninsianna

Ninsianna was a goddess of the planet Venus and could be seen as either male or female. Rim-Sin of Larsa called her “my king,” and in some places she was known as “Ishtar of the stars.” In other areas, she was a female “red queen of heaven.”

Pinikir

Pinikir was originally an Elamite goddess but became known in Mesopotamia and among Hurrians and Hittites as similar to Ishtar because of her roles. She was especially linked to Ishtar’s connection to the stars. In Elam, she was a goddess of love and a heavenly figure. Because of these links, Pinikir was sometimes seen as both female and male in Hurro-Hittite stories.

Šauška

Šauška’s name was often written as ^dIŠTAR in Hurrian and Hittite writings. Mesopotamian texts knew her as “Ishtar of Subartu.” Her helpers Ninatta and Kulitta were included among the goddesses serving Ishtar in the temple at Ashur.

Sumerian texts

Origin myths

The poem Enki and the World Order begins with the god Enki organizing the universe. Later, the goddess Inanna visits Enki and feels she has been left out. Enki tells her she already has her own duties.

In the story Inanna and the Huluppu Tree, a young Inanna plants a tree in her garden. The tree grows, but creatures make a home inside it. The hero Gilgamesh helps Inanna by driving them away and cutting down the tree to make gifts for her.

In Inanna Prefers the Farmer, Inanna chooses between marrying a farmer or a shepherd. With help from others, she decides to marry the shepherd.

Conquests and patronage

Inanna and Enki tells how Inanna cleverly wins special powers called the mes from Enki while he is unable to refuse her requests. She then brings these powers back to her city, Uruk, avoiding monsters Enki sends after her.

In Inanna Takes Command of Heaven, Inanna decides to claim a important temple for herself, facing challenges along the way but succeeding with support from others.

Inanna also appears in the story Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, where she helps arrange trade between two cities.

Justice myths

Inanna and her brother Utu were seen as bringers of fair judgments. In Inanna and Ebih, Inanna is angry at a mountain and decides to destroy it, showing her powerful nature.

Inanna as a goddess of love

Some stories show Inanna’s role as a goddess connected to love and relationships. In one poem, she tells her brother she wants to learn more about being a woman.

Descent into the underworld

The story of Inanna's journey to the underworld is an important tale from ancient Mesopotamia. Two versions of this story exist: a longer Sumerian version and a shorter Akkadian version. In both, Inanna, also known as Ishtar, travels to the underworld, ruled by her sister Ereshkigal.

In the Sumerian version, Inanna prepares for her visit by dressing in her finest clothes, each representing a different power she possesses. She knocks on the underworld's gates and is allowed in, but at each gate, she must remove one piece of clothing. By the time she reaches Ereshkigal, she stands before her sister with nothing on. The underworld's judges then punish Inanna, and she is hung on a hook like a corpse.

Three days later, Inanna's servant Ninshubur asks the gods to help rescue her. The gods refuse, but the god Enki creates two small beings who persuade Ereshkigal to return Inanna to the living by using special food and water. When Inanna returns, she must take someone else to the underworld in her place. The beings find her husband Dumuzi, who is taken to the underworld as her replacement.

The Akkadian version tells a similar story but with some differences. Ishtar threatens to break down the underworld's gates if not allowed in. Like Inanna, she loses her clothes at each gate until she stands before Ereshkigal. Angry, Ereshkigal imprisons Ishtar. With Ishtar gone, the world above suffers until the god Ea creates a being who convinces Ereshkigal to release Ishtar. When Ishtar returns, she also must take someone else from the living to the underworld, choosing her husband Dumuzi.

Later myths

Epic of Gilgamesh

Main article: Epic of Gilgamesh

In the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, Ishtar asks Gilgamesh to be her partner after he and his friend Enkidu return to Uruk. Gilgamesh says no, reminding her of how her past partners suffered. Angry, Ishtar asks her father Anu for help, and he gives her the Bull of Heaven. She sends it to attack Gilgamesh and Enkidu, but they defeat it. Later, Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh about the Great Flood sent by the god Enlil. Ishtar feels sad about the loss and promises never to let another flood happen.

Song of Agushaya

Main article: Agushaya Hymn

The Song of Agushaya tells how Ishtar causes trouble with war and battle. The wise god Ea creates a strong goddess to stand up to her, and after a big fight, Ishtar asks for peace. Ea agrees and starts a yearly festival to remember what happened.

Other tales

Other stories include Ishtar caring for the young god Ishum for a short time and appearing to the leader Sargon, helping him become a ruler. In some myths, she is known as the goddess Šauška and plays an important role.

Later influence

In antiquity

The worship of Inanna, also known as Ishtar, may have reached the Kingdom of Judah during the time of King Manasseh. Though Inanna is not named directly in the Bible, the Old Testament refers to "the Queen of Heaven," likely a mix of Inanna/Ishtar and the West Semitic goddess Astarte. Women baked cakes in her honor, as mentioned in the book of Jeremiah.

The Song of Songs shares similarities with ancient Sumerian love poems about Inanna and Dumuzid, using nature to describe love. Ezekiel mentions Dumuzid, Inanna's husband, and women mourning his loss. Some believe early Christians linked aspects of Ishtar to the Virgin Mary.

Inanna/Ishtar also shaped the worship of the Phoenician goddess Astarte. The Phoenicians brought Astarte to the islands of Cyprus and Cythera, influencing the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Aphrodite took on Inanna/Ishtar's roles in love and life. She was also called Ourania, meaning "heavenly," like Inanna's title as Queen of Heaven.

Early artworks and stories about Aphrodite are very similar to those of Inanna/Ishtar. Aphrodite was also a goddess of war; in Sparta, she was called Aphrodite Areia, meaning "warlike." Some of Aphrodite’s oldest statues show her with weapons. Scholars think Aphrodite’s warrior role comes from her roots near the East. Aphrodite also had a link with doves, which were sacrificed only to her. The Greek word for "dove," peristerá, may come from the Semitic phrase peraḥ Ištar, meaning "bird of Ishtar." The story of Aphrodite and Adonis comes from the tale of Inanna and Dumuzid.

Some see the Greek goddess Athena, who stands for wisdom and war, as similar to Inanna’s role as a strong warrior goddess. Others think Athena’s birth from the god Zeus might relate to Inanna’s journey to and return from the Underworld. However, a direct link is also found in older Hurrian stories.

In Mandaean cosmology, Venus is called ʿStira, a name from Ishtar.

Anthropologist Kevin Tuite suggests the Georgian goddess Dali was also shaped by Inanna. Both were linked to the morning star, wore little clothing, were connected to beauty and danger, and were tied to life and growth.

Traditional worship of Inanna and related gods slowly faded as people in the area turned to Christianity. Still, some groups kept celebrating the god Tammuz for many years.

Worship of Venus, linked to Inanna/Ishtar, continued in areas of Pre-Islamic Arabia until Islamic times.

Modern relevance

Alexander Hislop, a minister, wrote in 1853 that Roman Catholicism secretly came from old Babylonian beliefs. He said the word Easter might come from Ishtar. Scholars today disagree, but some still share Hislop’s ideas online.

Ishtar appeared in a long poem called Ishtar and Izdubar by Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton in 1884. It was based on the Epic of Gilgamesh but added new parts. The poem was turned into a symphony called Symphony Ishtar by composer Vincent d'Indy in 1887.

Inanna is important in modern ideas about women’s roles. She was a powerful goddess in a world mostly led by men. Some think she shows what it means to be a strong, independent woman. Others see her as an example of how ancient cultures valued women in religion.

Inanna is also used in some modern spiritual groups and ceremonies. Her story of going to the Underworld inspired parts of certain Wiccan practices.

In popular culture

Ishtar appears in the novel The Ship of Ishtar by A. Merritt. Inanna is the main character in the fantasy book Star Dancer (1993) by Fay Sampson. In the Kurdish movie Where Is Gilgamesh? (2024), based on the Epic of Gilgamesh, Inanna is a rival of Gilgamesh and protects an ancient secret written on a Sumerian tablet.

Dates (approximate)