Indian annexation of Goa

The Indian annexation of Goa was when the Republic of India took control of the Portuguese Indian areas of Goa, Daman and Diu in December 1961. Before this, these places had been ruled by Portugal for over 450 years. Many people in India felt it was important to bring Goa back into India, as they believed it was historically part of their country.

The Indian government decided to use its army, navy, and air force in an operation called Operation Vijay, which means "Victory" in Sanskrit. The fighting lasted for two days, and after that, India successfully took control of Goa. This action was praised by many in India as a liberation, but Portugal saw it as an attack on their land and people.

After the fighting ended, Goa was managed by a military leader until a civilian government was set up in June 1962. This marked the end of Portuguese rule and the beginning of Goa being part of India.

Background

After India became independent from the British Empire in August 1947, Portugal still kept control of some areas on the Indian subcontinent. These areas were Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Together, they were called the State of India. Goa, Daman and Diu covered about 1,540 square miles (4,000 km²) and had around 637,591 people. Most people there were Hindu (61%), some were Christian (37%), and a few were Muslim (2%). The main work there was farming, but in the 1940s and 1950s, mining of iron ore and manganese also grew.

Portugal was ruled by a government called the Estado Novo, which strongly supported keeping its colonies. This government thought its faraway lands were part of Portugal itself. Meanwhile, many people in Goa wanted to be part of India. Leaders like Tristão de Bragança Cunha started groups to fight for this idea. They used peaceful ways to protest at first, but later some groups also tried armed actions. India supported these efforts in different ways.

India tried many times to talk with Portugal about taking back these areas, but Portugal refused. India then started making it harder for people and goods to move between Goa and Portugal. In 1954, groups helped by India took over Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Over time, tensions grew until India decided to take action to bring Goa into India.

Events preceding the hostilities

Indian military build-up

The Indian government prepared for military action to capture Goa from Portuguese control. Lieutenant-General Chaudhari of the Indian Army’s Southern Command organized forces including the 17th Infantry Division and the 50th Parachute Brigade. The Indian Air Force prepared aircraft based in Pune and Sambra, with plans to destroy Goa’s airfield and support ground troops. The Indian Navy sent warships to the coast of Goa.

Portuguese mandate

In 1960, some Portuguese leaders warned that fighting India over Goa would be very difficult. However, the Portuguese leader ordered Goa’s forces to resist the Indian invasion as long as possible and hope for international support. The leader of Goa decided not to follow this order to avoid unnecessary loss of lives and surrendered the next day after the invasion began.

Portuguese military preparations

Portugal had built up forces in Goa since 1954, but these were not enough to face India’s much larger army. The Portuguese forces in Goa were organized into defense groups and had plans to destroy bridges and roads to slow down an invasion. However, these plans were not fully prepared.

Navy

The Portuguese Navy in Goa had only one main warship, the sloop NRP Afonso de Albuquerque, along with a few small patrol boats. An attempt to send more ships was stopped when Egypt refused to let them pass through the Suez Canal.

Ground forces

Portuguese ground forces in Goa included several battalions and support units, but many soldiers were not well trained. Security forces also helped with defense, but they were divided among Goa, Daman, and Diu.

Air defence

The Portuguese Air Force had almost no presence in Goa. Two civilian planes were there, but no fighter jets. Some anti-aircraft guns were hidden in Goa, but they were old and limited.

Portuguese civilian evacuation

As tensions rose, many people in Goa wanted to leave. On December 9, a ship allowed around 700 people to escape, even though it was not supposed to. More people left by plane after fighting began.

Indian reconnaissance operations

India started watching Goa’s coast and air fields closely. On December 17, an Indian plane flew over Goa and was shot at but managed to escape. The Indian aircraft carrier INS Vikrant stayed nearby to prevent any other countries from helping Goa.

Commencement of hostilities

Military actions in Goa

On 11 December 1961, Indian Army troops were ordered to move into Goa to capture key areas like Panaji and Mormugão. The main attack on Panaji was led by one group from the north and another from the east, with a smaller deceptive attack from the south.

Fighting began on 17 December when Indian troops took the town of Maulição in the northeast, leading to some clashes with Portuguese soldiers. Over the next days, Indian forces advanced from different directions. One group moved towards Ponda in central Goa, another towards Panaji, and a third group headed towards Tivim in the west.

By 18 December, Indian forces had reached Panaji and captured Fort Aguada. Other Indian units advanced from the east, meeting little resistance but facing destroyed bridges. They continued towards Margão and Mormugão, where they met stronger resistance but eventually secured the area.

Military actions in Daman

Daman was attacked on 18 December by Indian troops who advanced in four phases to capture the area. Despite some resistance and air raids, Indian forces managed to secure most of Daman by the end of the day, though the airfield and parts of the city held out longer.

Military actions in Diu

Diu was attacked on 18 December from two directions. Indian forces faced strong resistance and had to retreat several times before air and naval support helped them push forward. By 19 December, Portuguese forces in Diu surrendered after repeated attacks and being unable to get support from Goa or Lisbon.

Air raids over Goa

The first Indian air raid on 18 December targeted Dabolim Airport, destroying the runway but leaving other structures untouched. A second raid that same day also focused on the airport. A third raid targeted a wireless station at Bambolim. Later, some friendly fire incidents occurred when Indian aircraft accidentally attacked their own troops.

Storming of Anjidiv Island

Anjidiv Island, a small area near Goa, was attacked by Indian marines on 18 December. After a fierce battle, the island was secured the next day. Portuguese defenders were captured, though a few managed to hide and were caught over the following days.

Naval battle at Mormugão harbour

On 18 December, a Portuguese ship in Mormugão Harbour exchanged fire with Indian frigates. The Portuguese ship was heavily outgunned and eventually ran aground. The crew surrendered the next day, and the ship was later sold for scrap.

Military actions in Daman

Ground attack on Daman

Daman was attacked by Indian forces on 18 December. The Indian troops advanced in four phases to capture the area, facing some resistance but eventually securing most of Daman by the end of the day. Air raids and naval actions also supported the ground forces.

Daman air raids

In Daman, Indian aircraft flew many missions to harass Portuguese positions, supporting the ground forces.

Naval action at Daman

A Portuguese patrol boat tried to escape but failed and ended up in Pakistan after losing contact with Goa.

Military actions in Diu

Ground attack on Diu

Diu was attacked on 18 December from two directions. Indian forces faced strong resistance and had to retreat several times before air and naval support helped them push forward. By 19 December, Portuguese forces in Diu surrendered.

The Diu air raids

Indian aircraft attacked Diu continuously on 18 December, destroying fortifications, the airfield, and other key targets. The air attacks played a major role in forcing the Portuguese to surrender.

Naval action at Diu

An Indian cruiser shelled Diu Fortress, and a Portuguese patrol boat was attacked and forced to abandon ship after an air attack. The crew became prisoners of war.

UN attempts at ceasefire

In December 1961, Portugal asked the United Nations Security Council to discuss the situation in Goa. Some countries supported this request, while others did not.

During the discussion, Portugal said they were trying to stay peaceful but were being challenged by India. India believed Goa should be part of their country. The United States criticized India for using force, while the Soviet Union said it was India's own matter.

The Security Council tried to make a plan to stop the fighting, but could not agree. Different groups proposed different ideas, but none were accepted by all members. This showed that finding a solution was very difficult.

Portuguese surrender

By the evening of December 18, most of Goa had been taken over by Indian forces. Many Portuguese soldiers were at a military base near Vasco da Gama, planning to defend the area until help arrived. However, the leader of Portugal in Goa decided to stop fighting because he believed continuing would harm many people.

The official surrender happened in a ceremony on December 19. This ended over 450 years of Portuguese control in Goa. Many Portuguese soldiers were taken safely by the Indian Army. The fighting lasted two days and resulted in some losses on both sides.

Those Indian soldiers who helped in this operation received special medals for their service.

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Portuguese actions post-hostilities

After Goa was taken, Portugal cut off all diplomatic ties with India and did not recognize it as part of India. Portugal offered citizenship to people from Goa who wanted to move to Portugal instead of staying under Indian rule. Later, this offer was limited to those born before December 19, 1961.

Portugal's leader, Salazar, offered a large reward for capturing an Indian commander. In Lisbon, people held quiet marches and celebrations were muted. Salazar spoke to the Portuguese National Assembly, saying Portugal could not give up its land or people. He also accused other countries of not helping Portugal during this time.

Portugal used its national radio to encourage people in Goa to resist Indian rule. They tried to organize secret resistance groups and planned attacks to disrupt ports. In 1964, some Portuguese agents carried out bombings in Goa.

Finally, in 1974, after big changes in Portugal, the country recognized Goa as part of India. A treaty was signed in late 1974, and in 1992, a Portuguese president visited Goa for the first time after it became part of India.

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Prisoners of war

After they surrendered, the Portuguese soldiers were held by the Indian Army at their own military camps. By January 1962, most of these soldiers had been moved to a new camp where the conditions were better.

Some Portuguese people who were in Goa at the time of the surrender were taken to Mumbai and then sent back to Portugal. However, around 3,300 Portuguese soldiers stayed as prisoners in Goa.

During their time as prisoners, many local Goans visited them, offering food, drinks, and other supplies. This surprised the Indian military authorities, who at first limited these visits.

The captivity lasted for six months. By May 1962, most of the prisoners had been sent back to Portugal, first flying to Karachi, Pakistan, and then traveling by ship to Lisbon. Upon their return, some officers faced questions and faced consequences for not following orders. The former governor of Goa later returned to Portugal and was able to visit Goa again in 1974.

International reactions

Support

African states

Before the event, some people wondered how the world would react. Many African countries, which were also former colonies, supported India. For example, Ghana’s radio called it the “Liberation of Goa” and hoped for freedom for other Portuguese territories in Africa, like Angola. A leader from Mozambique said they fully supported using force against the Portuguese.

In the summer of 1961, the small Portuguese fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá was taken over by Dahomey (now Benin). After Portugal changed its government in 1974, it recognized this takeover.

Liberia said Goa was not really Portuguese but a place where people were not allowed to govern themselves, and they criticized Portugal for controlling India for over 500 years.

Soviet Union

Leonid Brezhnev, who would later lead the Soviet Union, was visiting India at the time and spoke in support of India’s actions. The Soviet Union also blocked a United Nations request to condemn India for taking Goa.

Arab states

Arab countries, such as the United Arab Republic, Morocco, and Tunisia, supported India. They said India had been patient but had to act because Portugal was not listening. Other Arab nations also expressed their support.

Ceylon

Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) fully supported India. The Prime Minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, said that transport for Portuguese troops in Goa would not be allowed to use Ceylon’s ports or airports. Ceylon also helped India by supporting a United Nations resolution in favor of India’s actions.

Indonesia

Indonesia supported India and called it a fight against colonialism. They said India, a peaceful country, had to use force because there was no other way to end colonialism.

Condemnation

United States

The United States disapproved of India’s actions. Adlai Stevenson spoke at the United Nations, saying India should pull its forces out of Goa. The US tried to reduce aid to India because of this, though President John F. Kennedy opposed this.

Some American newspapers criticized India, saying the country that talked about peace was acting like any other country would. They mentioned that India’s Defense Minister, Vengalil Krishnan Krishna Menon, may have pushed for this action for political reasons.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom was disappointed. While they understood why local Indians wanted Goa to join India, they said using force was wrong. The leader of the opposition in the UK also regretted India’s choice to use force, even though they thought Portugal should have given up its colonies long ago.

Netherlands

The Netherlands was unhappy that India, a country that always supported peace, had used force. They worried that this might encourage Indonesia to attack another area called West New Guinea.

Brazil

Brazil strongly supported Portugal. The Brazilian president said seventy million Brazilians could never accept violence against Goa. A Brazilian congressman said hurting Portugal hurt Brazil too.

Pakistan

Pakistan called India’s actions “naked militarism.” They said India had double standards and was being aggressive. Pakistan also mentioned the situation in Kashmir, hoping India would apply the same logic there.

Ambivalence

People's Republic of China

China said it supported people fighting against colonialism but also made comments suggesting India’s leader, Nehru, was trying to improve his popularity by taking action against Goa, especially with elections coming up.

The Catholic Church

After the annexation, there were changes in the leadership of the Catholic Church in Goa, but the Vatican did not publicly react at the time.

Legality

Quincy Wright wrote that India's actions were important because they showed a difference in how the East and West understand UN law. After India became independent in 1947, it recognized Portugal's control over Goa. But when India took Goa, it argued that colonial control was not legal. While this argument fit the rules of the twentieth century, it did not follow the rules from the sixteenth century.

Many countries understood India's reasons, but this did not mean they thought the takeover was legal. India's highest court agreed that Goa was part of India and did not follow old rules about occupied lands. In 1974, Portugal agreed in a treaty that India was in charge of Goa. Some experts say that using force to take over a place is always against the rules, no matter what happens later. Others think that since the people of Goa wanted to be part of India, this changed things, but the first takeover was still not allowed by the rules. Some Indians believed they were allowed to act because Goa was really part of India, not Portugal, so using force was not breaking any rules. They also pointed to the UN Charter, which says people have the right to decide which country they belong to.