Indian religions

Indian religions are beliefs that began in the Indian subcontinent. They include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, and other faiths. These religions are also called Dharmic or Eastern religions and are part of the rich history of India.

Many of these religions share ideas such as yoga and the cycle of birth and death, called saṃsāra. Over time, these religions grew and changed, creating many different groups and traditions. Today, they are followed by millions of people around the world.

History

Indian religions, also called Dharmic religions, started in the Indian subcontinent. They include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. These religions are sometimes called Eastern religions.

Periodisation

Different historians have split up the history of India in different ways. Some use the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods. Others use ancient, classical, medieval, and modern periods. These ways of splitting up history can miss important social and economic changes that didn’t depend on who was ruling.

Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE)

Prehistory

The earliest religion in the Indian subcontinent was likely local animism. Evidence of prehistoric religion comes from rock paintings and burials that show spiritual practices.

Indus Valley Civilisation

The religion of the Indus Valley people has been studied a lot, but it’s hard to understand because the Indus script hasn’t been decoded. Some think they worshipped a Mother Goddess and a Great Male God, but this is debated.

Vedic period (1750–800 BCE)

Early Vedic period – early Vedic compositions (c. 1750–1200 BCE)

The Vedic period began with the Indo-Aryans, who created the Vedas. These texts are central to Hinduism.

Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE)

During this time, the Yajurveda and Brahmana texts were written. The Brahmans became important leaders.

Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE)

The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism. The Upanishads, epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and later texts like the Puranas became important.

Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE)

Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE)

Jainism and Buddhism started during this time. They challenged old traditions and introduced ideas like the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and liberation (moksha).

Jainism

Jainism was started by teachers like Parshvanatha and Mahavira. They taught non-violence (ahimsa) and other important principles.

Buddhism

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha. He taught about enlightenment and liberation from rebirth. Buddhism spread across Asia.

Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE)

Both Jainism and Buddhism spread during the Magadha empire. Buddhism especially grew under Emperor Ashoka, who sent teachers to other countries.

Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE)

This period saw the writing of important texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana. New branches of Vedanta philosophy developed, and popular deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Ganesha became important.

Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE)

Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE)

After the Gupta Empire, smaller kingdoms grew. Regional religions like Shaivism and Vaisnavism became important. The Bhakti movement started, emphasizing love and devotion to God.

Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE)

Turks and Afghans invaded northern India, creating the Delhi Sultanate. This brought a mix of Indian and Muslim cultures.

Bhakti movement

The Bhakti movement continued, with teachers like Ramananda and Kabir teaching love for God. This movement happened in many parts of India.

Lingayatism

Lingayatism started in the 12th century by Basavanna. It’s a Shaivite tradition that emphasizes wearing a symbol called Ishtalinga.

Unifying Hinduism

Thinkers began to see Hinduism as a single whole, combining different philosophies and traditions.

Sikhism (15th century)

Sikhism started in the 15th century in Punjab with the teachings of Nanak and nine gurus. The main belief is in one God (Vāhigurū).

Modern period (1500–present)

Early modern period

The Mughal period brought new forms of religion.

Modern India (after 1800)

In the 19th century, leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Vivekananda helped shape a modern view of Hinduism. New Hindu movements like the Brahma Kumaris and Hare Krishna have spread worldwide.

Jainism remains strong in states like Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Buddhism saw a revival with the Dalit Buddhist movement, led by B. R. Ambedkar, who encouraged Dalits to convert to escape caste-based society.

Similarities and differences

Different people see the religions of India in different ways. Some focus on what makes them different, while others look at what they share.

Similarities

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism all have some ideas in common, even if they understand them differently. In the past, people from these religions often thought of themselves as part of the same big cultural family.

Dharma

These religions are often called Dharmic religions because they all talk about Dharma. Dharma can mean many things, like duty, doing what is right, or following spiritual teachings.

Soteriology

All these religions believe in moksha, which means being free from repeating life many times. They agree on this idea but may describe it in different ways.

Ritual

Some rituals are shared too. For example, a special pouring of liquid on the head is important in some of these traditions. Other shared practices include special ceremonies for married women and ways to honor the dead. Stories and teachings also have versions in each religion, and they all talk about ideas like karma, dharma, samsara, moksha, and different kinds of Yoga.

Mythology

The character Rama appears as a hero in all these religions. In Hinduism, he is a god who looks like a king. In Buddhism, he is a special wise person called a Bodhisattva. In Jainism, he is a perfect human being. There are many versions of Rama’s story in different cultures and languages.

Differences

Each of these religions has many different groups and ways of thinking. Even within one religion, there can be many different beliefs and practices.

Mythology

Stories in these religions sometimes show competition between them. For example, one story tells how Vajrapani defeats Mahesvara, who is shown as a bad version of the god Shiva. This story appears in some old writings and shows the rivalry between Buddhist groups and Shaivism.

Āstika and nāstika categorisation

Main articles: Āstika and nāstika, Hindu philosophy, and Buddhism and Hinduism

See also: Adi Shankara and Charvaka

Āstika and nāstika are terms used to group Indian religions, but we must be careful when using them. Some scholars say these ideas were more common in Persian writings and later spread to Indian ideas.

One common way to use these terms is based on whether a religion accepts the Vedas, important Hindu texts, as the highest authority. If a religion accepts the Vedas, it is called āstika. If it does not, it is called nāstika. For example, schools like Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, and Vedanta are āstika. Charvaka, Buddhism, and Jainism are nāstika because they do not accept the Vedas.

Another way people use these terms is to mean "believing in a god" for āstika and "not believing in a god" for nāstika. This can make some groups seem different from how they see themselves. Buddhists and Jains, for example, do not agree that they are nāstika. Jains use the word nāstika to describe someone who does not understand religious texts or believes there is no soul.

Use of term "Dharmic religions"

Some people use the term "Dharmic traditions" to show how similar the religions from India are. They think all these religions can be grouped together under this idea.

However, this way of thinking has been questioned because it may ignore the big differences between these religions. Some believe it tries to make all traditions fit into one view, which may not be accurate.

The group called the "Council of Dharmic Faiths" in the UK also includes Zoroastrianism as a Dharmic religion, even though it did not start in India.

Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India

Main article: Religion in India

See also: Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India

In India, laws sometimes group Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs together with Hindus. For example, an important law from 1955 lists these groups as part of Hinduism unless someone follows another religion like Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, or Judaism. The Indian Constitution also says that when talking about Hindus, it includes people who follow Sikhism, Jainism, or Buddhism.

However, some people and courts have said that Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism are their own special religions, not just parts of Hinduism. In 2005, a top court in India decided not to give Jains special minority status across the whole country, but left that decision up to individual states. Some states have different rules about whether these groups are separate religions or not.