Indigenous peoples in Canada

In Canada, Indigenous peoples (also known as Aboriginal Canadians) make up about 5% of the overall population. They include the Inuit, Métis, and First Nations. There are over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, each with unique cultures, languages, music, and arts.

Some of the earliest known places where people lived in Canada are Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves. Before Europeans arrived, Indigenous cultures had permanent homes, farmed land, built important structures, and had complex societies and trading networks. The Métis people, of mixed ancestry, began forming in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit married Europeans, mostly French settlers. First Nations and Métis peoples helped European settlers, especially during the North American fur trade.

Over time, many laws and agreements, called treaties, were made between Indigenous groups and European settlers. These events shaped Canada's culture, history, and government. Today, Indigenous peoples have the right to self-government, managing their own cultural, political, health, and economic matters. National Indigenous Peoples Day celebrates their many contributions to the history of Canada. Many Indigenous people have become important leaders and have helped shape the Canadian cultural identity.

Terminology

In Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982, the term "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes Indian, Inuit, and Métis peoples. The word "Aboriginal" is used in laws to talk about all Indigenous groups in Canada. While "Indian" is still used in legal documents for First Nations, many people now think this word is not kind. The word Aboriginal peoples is also being replaced by Indigenous peoples. People are also trying to recognize each group as its own nation, just like different cultures around the world.

The word First Nations has been used a lot since the 1970s instead of "Indians" or "Indian bands." On Indian reserves, some people now use the name of their specific group, like "I am Haida" or "we are Kwantlens." The word native can be confusing because it might talk about anyone born in a place, not just Indigenous peoples. The Indian Act is a law that defines who is legally called an Indian in Canada.

History

See also: History of Canada

Paleo-Indian period

See also: Peopling of the Americas and Paleo-Indians

Further information: Technological and industrial history of Canada § The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)

According to North American archaeological and genetic evidence, migration to North and South America made them the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska). Alaska was ice-free because of low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.

Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond.

The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago. It is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuing Pleistocene mammals such as the giant beaver, steppe wisent (bison), muskox, mastodons, woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer (early caribou). One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America. The other conjectured route is that they migrated, either on foot or using primitive boats, down the Pacific coast to the tip of South America, and then crossed the Rockies and Andes. Evidence of the latter has been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age.

The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages, thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals. The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000 years ago. Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such as hyenas and large camels. Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone was radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago.

Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were discovered in western North America during the 1930s. Clovis peoples were regarded as the first widespread Paleo-Indian inhabitants of the New World and ancestors to all Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago. The Folsom tradition is characterized by the use of Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison.

The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began. Lower sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called archipelago of Haida Gwaii. Hunter-gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000–9,000 years ago. In July 1992, the Government of Canada officially designated X̱á:ytem (near Mission, British Columbia) as a national historic site, one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner.

The Plano cultures was a group of hunter-gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers. Big game flourished in this new environment. The Plano culture is characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called Plano points, which were used to hunt bison. Their diets also included pronghorn, elk, deer, raccoon and coyote. At the beginning of the Archaic period, they began to adopt a sedentary approach to subsistence. Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia, have evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating small seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over generations from around 11,000–10,000 years ago. Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources. Adaptation to the harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin-covered tents on wooden frames.

Archaic period

See also: Pre-Columbian era

The North American climate stabilized by 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago); climatic conditions were very similar to today's. This led to widespread migration, cultivation and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas. Over the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples of the Americas domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide.

The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna, and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or linguistic divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices. Indigenous religions developed from anthropomorphism and animism philosophies.

The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status. There is a continuous record of occupation of S'ólh Téméxw by Indigenous people dating from the early Holocene period, 10,000–9,000 years ago. Archaeological sites at Stave Lake, Coquitlam Lake, Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts. These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family.^{[verification needed]} The Na-Dene people occupied much of the land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8,000 BCE. They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabaskan-speaking peoples, including the Navajo and Apache. They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for the winter. The Wendat peoples settled into Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River around 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago). They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay. Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land. Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6,000–5,000 BCE (8,000–7,000 years ago). They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, near Fort Macleod, Alberta, is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5,000 years.

By 7,000–5000 BCE (9,000–7,000 years ago) the west coast of Canada saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing. The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver Island began whaling with advanced long spears at about this time. The Maritime Archaic is one group of North America's Archaic culture of sea-mammal hunters in the subarctic. They prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE–1,500 BCE (9,000–3,500 years ago) along the Atlantic Coast of North America. Their settlements included longhouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white chert, a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine. The Pre-Columbian culture, whose members were called Red Paint People, is indigenous to the New England and Atlantic Canada regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE (5,000–3,000 years ago) and was named after their burial ceremonies, which used large quantities of red ochre to cover bodies and grave goods.

The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula, around Bristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago). These Paleo-Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades (microblades) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end-barbs on arrows or spears made of other materials, such as bone or antler. Scrapers, engraving tools and adze blades were also included in their toolkits. The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions, ancestors of the Thule people, and Inuit displaced these two groups by 1000 CE.^: 179–81 

Post-Archaic periods

See also: List of archaeological periods (North America)

The Old Copper complex societies dating from 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE (5,000–2,500 years ago) are a manifestation of the Woodland culture, and are pre-pottery in nature. Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements.

The Woodland cultural period dates from about 1,000 BCE – 1,000 CE, and has locales in Ontario, Quebec, and Maritime regions. The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants. Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada. They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on a diet of squash, corn, and bean crops.

The Hopewell tradition is an Indigenous culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel complexes.

First Nations

Main article: First Nations in Canada

First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character. In the northwest are the Athapaskan speaking, Slavey, Tłı̨chǫ, Tutchone, and Tlingit. Along the Pacific coast are the Tsimshian; Haida; Coast Salish; Kwakwakaʼwakw; Heiltsuk; Nootka; Nisga'a; Senakw and Gitxsan. In the Plains are the Niisitapi; Káínawa; Tsuutʼina; and Piikáni. In the Northern Woodlands are the Cree and Chipewyan. Around the Great Lakes are the Anishinaabe; Algonquin; Haudenosaunee and Wendat. Along the Atlantic Coast are the Wolastoqiyik, Innu, Abenaki, and Mi'kmaq and formerly the Beothuk.^{[citation needed]}

Many First Nations civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. These cultures had evolved and changed by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15–early 16th centuries), and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations.

There are indications of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Indigenous people in Canada first interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation. Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities. A sideline industry emerged in the un-organized traffic of furs overseen by the British Indian Department.

Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano, who met with King of the United Kingdom, Edward VII, to speak of the need to settle land claims and Ovide Mercredi, a leader at both the Meech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions and Oka Crisis.

Inuit

Main article: Inuit

Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across the Arctic, displacing the Dorset culture (in Inuktitut, the Tuniit). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society. By 1300, Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions.

Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the Nunamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to engage in warfare. In the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder. One account, Ívar Bárðarson, speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought. 14th-century accounts relate that a western settlement, one of the two Norse settlements, was taken over by the Skræling.

After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as those excavated at Red Bay. The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs.

Notable among the Inuit are Abraham Ulrikab and family who became a zoo exhibit in Hamburg, Germany, and Tanya Tagaq, a traditional throat singer. Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain surnames rather than disc numbers and Kiviaq (David Ward) won the legal right to use his single-word Inuktitut name.

Métis

Main article: Métis

The Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French) and Cree, Ojibwe, Algonquin, Saulteaux, Menominee, Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and other First Nations. Their history dates to the mid-17th century.

When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Indigenous peoples for fur trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Indigenous women were often consolidated through marriage. The Métis homeland consists of the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, as well as the Northwest Territories (NWT).

Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actor Tom Jackson, Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford, and Louis Riel who led two resistance movements: the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his trial and subsequent execution.

The languages inherently Métis are either Métis French or a mixed language called Michif. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis today predominantly speak English, with French a strong second language, as well as numerous Indigenous tongues. A 19th-century community of the Métis people, the Anglo-Métis, were referred to as Countryborn. They were children of Rupert's Land fur trade typically of Orcadian, Scottish, or English paternal descent and Indigenous maternal descent. Their first languages would have been Indigenous (Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine, etc.) and English. Their fathers often spoke Gaelic or the Orcadian dialect, thus leading to the development of an English dialect referred to as "Bungi".^{[dubious – discuss]}

S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis, but on September 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights (Powley ruling).

Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis; the Métis, their heritage and Indigenous ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations.

Forced assimilation

Main articles: Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples and Settler colonialism in Canada

From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouraged assimilation of Indigenous culture into what was referred to as "Canadian culture." These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of the Indigenous peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act and the Indian Act, focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.

Christianization

Missionary work directed at the Indigenous people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, generally from France, some of whom were martyred (Jesuit saints called the Canadian Martyrs). Christianization as government policy became more systematic with the Indian Act in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for those who did not convert to Christianity. For example, the new laws would prevent non-Christian Indigenous people from testifying or having their cases heard in court, and ban alcohol consumption. When the Indian Act was amended in 1884, traditional religious and social practices, such as the Potlatch, would be banned, and further amendments in 1920 would prevent "status Indians" (as defined in the Act) from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-Christian practices.

Sedentary living, reserves, and "gradual civilization"

Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the Indigenous groups of Canada sedentary, as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate. In the 19th century, the government began to support the creation of model farming villages, which were meant to encourage non-sedentary Indigenous groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture. When most of these model farming villages failed, the government turned instead to the creation of Indian reserves with the Indian Act of 1876. With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reserves. Farming was still seen as an important practice for assimilation on reserves; however, by the late 19th century the government had instituted restrictive policies here too, such as the Peasant Farm Policy, which restricted reserve farmers largely to the use of hand tools. This was implemented largely to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farming.

Through the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857, the government would encourage Indians (i.e., First Nations) to enfranchise – to remove all legal distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects. If an Indigenous chose to enfranchise, it would strip them and their family of Aboriginal title, with the idea that they would become "less savage" and "more civilized," thus become assimilated into Canadian society. However, they were often still defined as non-citizens by Europeans, and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment.

Residential system

Main articles: Canadian Indian residential school system and Residential school denialism

The final government strategy of assimilation, made possible by the Indian Act was the Canadian residential school system:

Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation, none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department, to its goal of assimilation than the residential school system… it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their "savage" communities into "higher civilization" and "full citizenship."

Beginning in 1874 and lasting until 1996, the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches, ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Indigenous children. Sometimes school attendance was forced. While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, and abuse.

According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a Eurocentric society, violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in international court for genocide. A legal case resulted in settlement of CA$2 billion in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples. In 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system.

Politics, law, and legislation

See also: Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada

Indigenous law vs. Aboriginal law

Further information: Canadian Indigenous law

Indigenous peoples in Canada have their own legal systems. These systems help them govern their communities, manage resources, and solve problems. These laws come from many different traditions and practices. Canadian Aboriginal law looks at how the government works with Indigenous groups. This includes groups under the Indian Act, treaties, and other agreements.

Treaties

The relationship between the Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada started during European colonization. Important agreements, like the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Niagara, recognized Indigenous rights. These agreements continue to be important today.

After Canada grew in 1870, eleven Numbered Treaties were made with First Nations from 1871 to 1921. These treaties are official agreements watched over by Canadian law.

Treaty rights became part of the 1982 Constitution. Many older agreements, like the Peace and Friendship Treaties and the Robinson Treaties, are still recognized in Canadian law. However, some First Nations, such as the Mikmaq and Anishnaabe, still do not have treaties with the Crown.

In recent years, Canada has worked on new treaties. The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement in 1970 was the first. This was followed by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement in 1984 and the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement in 1993, which created the territory of Nunavut.

Indian Act

Main article: Indian Act

The Indian Act is a Canadian law from 1876. It helps manage relationships between the government and Indigenous peoples. Over time, the law has been changed to give more rights to Indigenous communities.

In 1985, Canada changed the Indian Act to remove unfair rules, especially those that treated women unfairly. It also let some people regain their status or band membership. Bands can now decide their own membership rules.

Royal Commission

Main article: Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

In 1991, Canada created the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. This group looked at past government policies toward Indigenous peoples and suggested changes. Their report in 1996 had many ideas to improve how Indigenous and non-Indigenous people work together in Canada.

Health policy

Main article: Indian Health Transfer Policy

In 1995, Canada announced policies to help Indigenous peoples manage their own health services. This lets First Nations and Inuit create governments that fit their needs. Communities can choose when and how to take control of health services.

Political organization

Further information: Band government and History of Indigenous organizations in Canada

Indigenous groups in Canada have many ways to organize themselves. Some are small bands, while others are large groups like the Iroquois. National groups like the Assembly of First Nations, the Métis National Council, and the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami represent these communities. They work with the Government of Canada on issues like land and rights.

Culture

See also: Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Many words, inventions, and games from Indigenous cultures are now commonly used in Canada. Things like the canoe, snowshoes, toboggan, lacrosse, tug of war, maple syrup, and tobacco all come from Indigenous traditions. Words such as barbecue, caribou, chipmunk, woodchuck, hammock, skunk, and moose also have Indigenous roots.

Many Canadian place names have Indigenous origins. The word “Canada” itself comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning “village” or “settlement.” The province of Saskatchewan gets its name from the Saskatchewan River, called Kisiskatchewani Sipi in Cree, meaning “swift-flowing river.” Ottawa, Canada’s capital, comes from the Algonquin language word adawe, meaning “to trade.”

Youth groups like Scouts Canada and the Girl Guides of Canada include activities based on Indigenous traditions, such as learning about nature, crafts, and outdoor skills.

Indigenous cultures developed around their environment and way of life. For example, the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast relied on fishing, while people in the interior hunted animals. On the plains, bison hunting was important. In the subarctic forest, animals like moose were key. Near the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, some groups grew crops like maize, beans, and squash. For the Inuit, hunting, especially of seals, was central to their way of life. One famous symbol of Inuit culture is the inuksuk, a stack of stones, which was used as an emblem for the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics.

Indian reserves are special lands set aside for First Nations peoples by agreement with the Canadian government. Some of these reserves are located within cities. Today, Indigenous people work in many jobs and live in various places, but they still value the traditions and teachings of their ancestors. National Indigenous Peoples Day is celebrated on June 21 each year to honor the cultures and achievements of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples.

Languages

Further information: Indigenous languages of the Americas and Languages of Canada § Indigenous languages

See also: Canadian Aboriginal syllabics

Canada is home to thirteen groups of Indigenous languages, including eleven spoken languages and two sign languages. Only Cree, Inuktitut, and Ojibwe have enough speakers to continue thriving. In Nunavut, Inuktut, which includes Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun, is an official language along with English and French. In the Northwest Territories, eleven languages are recognized, including Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwichʼin, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, and Tłįchǫ. People can ask for services in these languages if needed.

Visual art

Further information: Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Indigenous peoples have created art for thousands of years, long before European settlers arrived in Canada. Their art comes from many different areas of North America and is grouped by region, such as the Northwest Coast, Plateau, Plains, Eastern Woodlands, Subarctic, and Arctic. Indigenous art often focuses on small, portable items for the body, unlike European architecture. For example, the Inuit use masks and rattles in ceremonies. Artists have also used materials from trade, like metal and glass beads.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian laws banned many Indigenous cultural practices and artworks. But since the 1950s and 1960s, Indigenous artists like Mungo Martin, Bill Reid, and Norval Morrisseau have brought back and renewed Indigenous art. Today, Indigenous artists work in all kinds of media, and some have represented Canada at important art events.

Music

Main article: Indigenous music of Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada have many different musical traditions. Music can be for social gatherings or for ceremonies. Social music often includes dancing with rattles and drums. Ceremonial music may include singing with percussion to mark special events.

Traditionally, Indigenous people made their own instruments from natural materials. For example, they used gourds and animal horns for rattles, and wood and antlers for drumsticks. Drums were made from wood and animal hides. These instruments were important for songs and dances, which many consider sacred. For a long time after Europeans arrived, Indigenous people were not allowed to practice their ceremonies freely.

Demography

Further information: Population of Canada § Indigenous peoples, and Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

See also: List of First Nations peoples in Canada and List of Indian reserves in Canada

There are three main groups of Indigenous peoples in Canada: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. These groups are recognized in Canada's laws. In 2021, about 1.8 million Indigenous people lived in Canada, making up 5% of the country's population. This number has been growing, though more slowly than before.

Most Indigenous people in Canada are young. The average age for Indigenous people is 33 years, compared to 42 years for non-Indigenous people. Many Indigenous communities have more children than other groups. In the past, Indigenous populations were much smaller, but they have grown a lot over the years.