Inquisition

An inquisition was a special Catholic judicial procedure used to investigate and try people accused of wrong beliefs or actions. Over time, many groups started using this procedure to find and punish those they thought were breaking religious rules. These groups included the Catholic Church and some governments in Europe.

The idea of using inquisitions to fight against wrong beliefs began in the 12th century in the Kingdom of France, especially among groups like the Cathars and the Waldensians. Later, these courts spread to other places, including Spain and Portugal, where they watched over people who had changed their religion, such as former Jews and Muslims, to make sure they were truly following Catholicism.

As time went on, the inquisitions grew to include many parts of Europe and even faraway places controlled by Spain and Portugal. They also became very important during big religious changes, like the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Most of these special courts stopped operating in the early 19th century, but one part continued in the Papal States with different names and focuses.

Legal background

Further information: Inquisitorial system § History

During a time called the high medieval period, people used unusual ways to decide if someone did something wrong. These included tests like trial by fire or water, and having friends say the person was a good character. Later, people tried to use safer rules from old Roman and Hebrew laws.

Universities began teaching Roman law, and a new way of investigating serious crimes was created. This method was first used in courts run by church leaders and then in other courts too. Many places still use parts of this old system today.

To prove a serious crime, more than just guesses were needed — two or more people had to say what happened. Because of this, some people were threatened or treated harshly to get them to tell what they knew. This happened in both church and government courts.

Experts from that time made rules about when and how these tough methods could be used. Often, these rules were not written down. One historian said this new way of investigating was a good idea, but later misuse was not what was intended.

Terminology

Further information: Medieval Inquisition

Inquisition

The word "inquisition" comes from a Latin term that described a fair way of running a court. This method was used a lot during the Middle Ages and was better than older, unfair ways of judging people. Today, when we talk about the Inquisition, we usually mean groups set up by the Catholic Church to look for people who went against Church rules.

Inquisitor

People called inquisitors used a special way of finding out facts, called an "inquiry." This meant they could ask anyone for information about a certain problem. These inquisitors were often worried about people not following Church rules. They were supposed to follow fair rules, like telling the person what they were accused of and letting them have a lawyer. But sometimes, these rules were not always followed exactly.

Scope

The Inquisition was a special church court used to handle serious religious matters. It mostly focused on people who were already Catholic or had been forced to become Catholic, looking at their actions for any behavior that went against church teachings.

The opening of old church records in recent years has led some historians to change their views about the Inquisition. Some now think past stories made it seem much worse than it was. However, most historians still believe the Inquisition used harsh methods, including torture and punishment, which created fear and control among many people in Europe.

Sentences

When someone was found guilty of serious religious crimes, church leaders would hand them over to local rulers for punishment. These rulers would decide the punishment based on their laws, which sometimes included very harsh actions. The church leaders often knew what would happen to the person after they were handed over.

Although the main goal of these trials was to help people change their ways, the punishments were also meant to warn others. The idea was that by showing strict punishments, people would be less likely to commit similar wrongdoings.

Origin

Before the 1200s, the Catholic Church tried to stop people from believing things they thought were wrong, usually by not letting them join the Church or putting them in prison. They did not use painful methods to make people talk, and they rarely punished people by death. Some religious leaders spoke out against killing people for these beliefs.

In the 1100s, the Church started to act more strongly against certain beliefs, like Catharism. They asked groups of bishops to start special courts called inquisitions. A important Church leader, Pope Lucius III, said that believing these wrong things was like refusing to follow the Church's rules. Later rules said that punishers would also affect the families of the people being punished.

The first special court was set up in Languedoc, in southern France, in 1184. Later, after some difficult events, these courts were made permanent in 1229. They were often led by members of the Dominican order.

Medieval Inquisitions

Main articles: Medieval Inquisition and Ad extirpanda

Historians call the "Medieval Inquisition" the various groups that began around 1184. These groups included the Episcopal Inquisitions (1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisitions (1230s). They focused on large movements in Europe seen as against the beliefs of Christianity, especially the Cathars in southern France and the Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. Other groups followed these early movements. Some of their power came from a document by Pope Innocent IV in 1252, which allowed certain methods to get answers from people accused of wrong beliefs. By 1256, rules were set that let some leaders forgive each other if accidents happened during these methods.

In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX (ruled 1227–1241) asked the Dominican Order and Franciscan Order to handle these groups. By the end of the Middle Ages, only England and Castile did not have a group like this. Most leaders were teachers of religion and law. They used common legal steps from old Roman courts. They worked with church leaders and others to judge people and deal with wrong beliefs. After 1200, a main leader oversaw each area's group, but did not control them fully. These groups continued until the mid-19th century.

Early modern European history

When new ideas began to challenge old beliefs during the time of the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, both sides saw the Inquisition in very different ways. Protestants thought of it as something scary and unfair, while strong Catholics believed it was needed to protect their faith.

The Spanish Inquisition started in 1478 by King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. It operated under royal authority and focused on people who had changed from Islam or Judaism to Christianity but were suspected of still following their old religions. Many faced serious consequences for these suspicions.

The Portuguese Inquisition began in 1536 and also focused on people who had changed from Judaism to Christianity. It expanded to Portugal's colonies, affecting many lives across different areas.

The Roman Inquisition started in 1542 to protect the Catholic faith from new ideas that were seen as wrong. It handled many important cases, including one involving the scientist Galileo Galilei. Punishments for those found guilty could include public acts of repentance, fines, or imprisonment.

Manuals for Inquisitors

Over many years, different guides were made to help judges who worked for the Inquisition. These guides told them how to handle many kinds of serious wrong beliefs. One of the earliest guides was created in 1252 by a church leader, and it included rules for questioning people. Later, other important guides were written, such as one by Nicholas Eymerich in 1376 and another by Bernardo Gui between 1319 and 1323.

One famous book from 1486, called Malleus Maleficarum (which means “the witches’ hammer”), focused on witchcraft. It was written by Heinrich Kramer, a church worker from Germany. Though some church leaders had questions about the book’s ideas, Kramer kept working until his death.

Main article: Malleus Maleficarum

Inquisition Proceedings

The Inquisition was a special type of court created by the Catholic Church to find and punish people who were thought to have broken religious rules. It began with visits from church leaders to different places, where people were asked to tell what they knew about others who might have broken these rules. Many people told on others because they were afraid of being accused themselves. If someone confessed during a certain time, they might avoid serious punishment.

People were sometimes questioned using strict methods to get them to tell the truth. These methods included keeping them alone for long periods or using other ways to pressure them. Records show that these methods were used carefully, and not everyone accused was treated the same. Punishments could include doing special tasks, wearing special clothes, or even losing property. Families sometimes accused each other out of fear, leading to hard times for many people. Even people who had already died could be accused if someone thought they had broken religious rules.

Legitimation by the texts

The Inquisition used ideas from the Bible and early church leaders to explain its actions. They believed certain Bible verses allowed them to separate people who did not follow the church's teachings. Some saw this separation as a way to protect the faith, even if it meant others faced serious consequences.

Important church thinkers like Thomas Aquinas helped shape the rules for dealing with those who disagreed with church teachings. Some church leaders thought it was better to try to change people's minds rather than harm them, while others believed strong actions were needed to keep the faith strong.

Opposition and resistance

In many places and times, people opposed the Inquisition. Some even tried to hurt or kill the judges because they feared losing their freedom, property, or even their lives. For example, an inquisitor named Konrad von Marburg was killed by six men in 1233. In 1242, a group attacked and killed inquisitors in a castle in southern France. Another inquisitor, Peter of Verona, was also killed.

Opposition also came from inside the church. A Franciscan friar named Bernard Délicieux spoke out against the Inquisition in France, saying it was unfair and hurt innocent people. He was later arrested, questioned, and sent to prison where he died. In Spain and Portugal, bishops and other church leaders also argued against the Inquisition, feeling it was too harsh and unfair. One Portuguese priest, António Vieira, was even arrested for his criticism but later helped change some of the Inquisition’s actions.

Ending of the Inquisition in the 19th and 20th centuries

By a rule from Napoleon’s government in 1797, the Inquisition in Venice ended in 1806. In Portugal, after the Liberal Revolution of 1820, the "General Extraordinary and Constituent Courts of the Portuguese Nation" ended the Portuguese Inquisition in 1821. The wars of independence of the former Spanish colonies in the Americas led to the Inquisition ending in every part of Hispanic America between 1813 and 1825. In Spain, the Inquisition’s actions stopped in 1834.

In Italy, when the Pope returned to rule the Papal States in 1814, the Inquisition started again there. It stayed active until the late-1800s. A group that oversaw these actions, the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, was created in 1542 in the Vatican. This group still exists today as part of the Roman Curia, though it has changed its name several times. In 1908, it was called the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. In 1965, it became the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In 2022, it was renamed the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, and this is its name today.

Current position of the Catholic Church

In the time leading up to a big celebration in the year 2000, the leader of the Catholic Church, Pope John Paul II, asked forgiveness for past actions that hurt others. He spoke about many different kinds of mistakes, including some made by people in the Church long ago. Some believed this apology might make the Church seem less strong.

Even some important Church leaders have admitted that some methods used by the Church in the past did not match what they believe is right. Some of those involved in these old actions are now honored as holy people in the Church.