Jabir ibn Hayyan

Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Arabic: أَبو موسى جابِر بِن حَيّان), died c. 806−816, is the name given to the author of many important books in Arabic. These books, called the Jabirian corpus, talk mostly about alchemy and chemistry, but they also cover many other subjects like cosmology, astronomy, medicine, and pharmacology.

The books said to be written by Jabir contain some of the earliest known ways to sort out different chemical materials. They also show how to make a certain chemical from plants and other organic things. These ideas were very important and were used for many years.

Many of Jabir’s writings also talk about a special idea called "the science of the balance." This idea tried to explain everything in the world by using measurements and numbers. Some of Jabir’s books also share ideas about religious teachings from a leader named Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq.

Later, some of Jabir’s books were translated into Latin and became well known in Europe under the name Geber. Even today, people wonder if Jabir really existed or if the name was used by a group of writers.

Biography

It is unclear if Jabir ibn Hayyan really existed. He is thought to have lived in the 8th century and may have been a follower of the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq. However, the earliest known writer to talk about Jabir was Ibn al-Nadīm, who wrote about him around the year 987. Some people even believed Jabir may not have existed at all.

Many writings are said to be by Jabir, but scholars think they were not actually written by him. The words and ideas in these writings match texts from later times, around the 9th and 10th centuries. It is believed that someone used Jabir's name to write these works, perhaps in the late 9th or early 10th century.

Jabir was known by different names, such as Abū Mūsā or al-Ṣūfī. Some stories say he came from places like Khurasan in Iran or Kufa in Iraq. He is sometimes linked to important families and leaders of that time, but these details are unclear and may be part of the stories made up about him.

The Jabirian corpus

There are about 600 Arabic works said to be written by Jabir ibn Hayyan. Today, around 215 of these works still exist. Most of these works are short and part of larger groups, like The One Hundred and Twelve Books or The Five Hundred Books. When you count each chapter as a separate work, there could be as many as 3000.

Most of the surviving works are about alchemy or chemistry. Some also talk about cosmology, grammar, magic, engineering, medicine, and more. However, many writings on subjects like pharmacology, zoology, botany, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, astronomy, and astrology are lost.

Alchemical writings

Many of Jabir's works focus on alchemy. One important book is The Great Book of Mercy, thought to be one of the oldest. Another is The One Hundred and Twelve Books, which talks about practical parts of alchemy. There is also The Seventy Books, which explains alchemy in a more organized way. Other collections like The Ten Books of Rectifications and The Books of the Balances discuss different ideas and methods in alchemy.

Writings on magic (talismans, specific properties)

Jabir also wrote about special powers of different materials and about talismans. One of these works is The Book of the Search, which looks at the ideas behind these special powers. Another is The Great Book on Specific Properties, which talks about hidden powers in minerals, plants, and animals.

Other extant writings

Besides alchemy and magic, Jabir wrote about other topics. One surviving work is The Book on Poisons and on the Repelling of their Harmful Effects, which is about pharmacology.

Lost writings

Many of Jabir's works are lost. This includes writings on topics like medical practices, philosophical ideas, mathematical theories, and religious thoughts. Some of these lost works had titles like The Books on Stratagems and The Book of the Imamate.

Historical background

Greco-Egyptian, Byzantine and Persian alchemy

The writings of Jabir mention many ancient alchemists and wise figures, like pseudo-Democritus, Mary the Jewess, Agathodaemon, Zosimos of Panopolis, Hermes Trismegistus, Ostanes, Moses, and Jesus. These references might have been used to give the writings more authority. Jabir's alchemy was different from older Greek alchemy. It was more organized, used fewer symbols, and focused more on ideas and experiments.

Jabir's work was also different because it used plants and animals, not just minerals. This was a new way of thinking in chemistry. Even though Jabir's writings don't seem to have used existing Byzantine alchemical books, they shared some ideas with Byzantine alchemy. The works that Jabir's authors used were often falsely said to be written by ancient thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Apollonius of Tyana.

One new idea in Jabir's alchemy was adding sal ammoniac (also called ammonium chloride) to a group of special chemicals known as 'spirits'. This was likely because of the new focus on using plants and animals in chemistry. The word used for sal ammoniac in Jabir's writings comes from Iranian origins, suggesting that the ideas behind Jabir's alchemy might have come from schools in the Sassanid Empire.

Chemical philosophy

Jabir believed that each basic material, like fire, earth, water, and air, has two special qualities. For example, fire is hot and dry, while water is cold and moist. He thought these qualities, called "natures," were mixed together with a basic substance in all materials.

Jabir also thought that metals are made when two substances, sulfur and mercury, mix deep in the earth. He believed that the type of sulfur used decides what kind of metal forms, with the best sulfur making gold. This idea was used for many years to explain how metals are made.