Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon

The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (French: Mandat pour la Syrie et le Liban; Arabic: الانتداب الفرنسي على سوريا ولبنان, romanized: al-intidāb al-faransī ʻalā sūriyā wa-lubnān, also referred to as the Levant States; 1923−1946) was a League of Nations mandate created after the First World War and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. It covered the lands of Syria and Lebanon. The idea behind the mandate system was that the country in charge, in this case France, would help the local people learn how to govern themselves instead of treating the land like a colony.

After the war ended in 1918, France and the United Kingdom had divided up the old Ottoman lands according to the Sykes–Picot Agreement. France took control of most of Ottoman Syria, which included what we now call Lebanon, as well as parts of other areas. In 1923, the League of Nations officially gave France the responsibility for this region. The League watched over how France managed these lands through a group called the Permanent Mandates Commission, which let other countries share ideas about things like the economy.

Over the years, France ran the area using several different local governments, such as the Syrian Federation, the State of Syria, and the Mandatory Syrian Republic (1930–1946), along with smaller areas like Greater Lebanon. Eventually, in 1946, France left Syria and Lebanon after both places declared independence during World War II.

Background

Main articles: Occupied Enemy Territory Administration and Arab Kingdom of Syria

When the Ottoman Empire lost in World War I, British troops led by General Sir Edmund Allenby entered Damascus in 1918. With them were troops from the Arab Revolt, led by Faisal, the son of Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz. Faisal set up a new Arab government in Damascus and named Ali Rikabi as military governor.

The new Arab leaders hoped to create a large Arab state stretching from Aleppo in the north to Aden in the south. But France and Britain had a secret agreement, the Sykes–Picot Agreement, to divide the region between them. France took control of Syria and Lebanon, dissolving the local Arab governments there.

In 1919, elections were held for the Syrian National Congress, which met in Damascus. Most of the members were conservative, but there were also Arab nationalists. In June 1919, the King–Crane Commission visited Syria to learn what local people wanted for their future. They found that most Syrians did not want a French mandate and wanted a united Greater Syria, including Palestine. But both Britain and France ignored these findings.

In March 1920, the Syrian National Congress declared Syria's independence and made Faisal king of all Arabs. They also wanted to join with Iraq. But France was not happy with this. In July 1920, French forces defeated Syrian troops at the Battle of Maysaloun and took control of Damascus. The mandate for Syria and Lebanon was officially created in 1922.

States created during the French Mandate

When the French arrived in Lebanon, many Maronite Christians welcomed them, hoping for more self-rule. However, in the rest of Syria, many people resisted French control.

The mandate area was divided into six states. These were the states of Damascus (1920), Aleppo (1920), Alawites (1920), Jabal Druze (1921), the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta (1921, now Hatay), and the State of Greater Lebanon (1920), which later became modern Lebanon.

These divisions were partly based on different religious groups but also followed French strategies. By supporting local identities, the French aimed to weaken larger movements for unity. Many Syrian groups opposed both the French rule and these divisions, leading to several uprisings. The Maronite Christians in Mount Lebanon, however, saw their dream of independence coming true under French support, making Greater Lebanon unique among the new states.

It took France three years, from 1920 to 1923, to fully control Syria and end the uprisings in places like the Alawite areas, Mount Druze, and Aleppo.

Despite the uprisings, the French gave different ethnic and religious groups in the Levant their own areas, hoping to keep their rule going longer. They aimed to split groups to reduce support for the Syrian nationalist movement wanting an end to colonial rule. French officials controlled most decisions, leaving local leaders with very little real power.

State of Greater Lebanon

Main article: Greater Lebanon

The first map made by the French in 1862 helped decide the borders of Greater Lebanon in 1920. The second map shows the older borders of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.

On August 3, 1920, French leaders added several areas to what was then called the Autonomous Territory of Lebanon. Then, on August 31, 1920, General Gouraud officially announced the creation of the State of Greater Lebanon in Beirut.

Greater Lebanon was created by France to protect the Maronite population of Mount Lebanon. While Mount Lebanon had often been somewhat independent under the Ottoman rule, France also added other areas, including North Lebanon, South Lebanon, Biqa' valley, and Beirut. The capital was Beirut. The new state used a flag combining the French flag with the cedar of Lebanon. Maronites were the majority and kept Lebanon’s independence, making it unique in the Arab world as the first Arab country where Christians were not a smaller group. The State of Greater Lebanon lasted until May 23, 1926, when it became the Lebanese Republic.

Many Muslims in Greater Lebanon did not at first accept the new state. Some believe that later demands from Muslims to join the United Arab Republic led to armed conflict between Muslims and Christians in 1958, though by the late 1930s many Muslim communities and leaders felt proud to be Lebanese citizens, even while holding other Arab views.

State of Alawites

Main article: State of Alawites

On August 19, 1920, General Gouraud signed an order adding several areas to the autonomous sandjak of Alexandretta, preparing for the "Alawite Territories". On August 31, 1920, the same day Greater Lebanon was created, General Gouraud signed another order creating the State of Alawites.

The State of Alawites was along the Syrian coast and included mostly Alawites, a group of Shia Islam. The capital was the port city of Latakia. It started as an autonomous area under French rule called the "Alawite Territories". It later became part of the Syrian Federation in 1922 but left in 1924 to become the "State of Alawites". On September 22, 1930, it was renamed the "Independent Government of Latakia". The population then was 278,000. The government of Latakia eventually joined the Syrian Republic on December 5, 1936. This area saw several uprisings against French rule, including one led by Salih al-Ali from 1918 to 1920.

On June 28, 1922, an order created a "Federation of the Autonomous States of Syria" including Aleppo, Damascus, and the Alawites. However, on December 5, 1924, new orders made the Alawite State independent with Latakia as its capital, and combined Aleppo and Damascus into a single "State of Syria", starting on January 1, 1925.

In 1936, both Jebel Druze and the Alawite State became part of the State of Syria.

State of Syria

Main articles: State of Aleppo, State of Damascus, and State of Syria

On September 1, 1920, the day after Greater Lebanon and the Alawite State were created, an order separated the "Government of Damascus" into an independent area called the "Government of Aleppo", including the autonomous sandjak of Alexandretta, which kept its special rule. The names "Government of Aleppo" and "Government of Damascus" were used like "State of Aleppo" and "State of Damascus". For example, Order 279 from October 1, 1920 mentioned "State of Aleppo" in its beginning.

The State of Aleppo existed from 1920 to 1925. It included most of northern Syria and the fertile lands along the Euphrates River in eastern Syria. These areas had much of Syria’s farming and natural riches. The autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta became part of Aleppo in 1923. The capital was the city of Aleppo, which had big groups of Christians and Jewish people along with Sunni Muslims. The state also included smaller groups of Shiites and Alawites. Kurds and Assyrians lived in the eastern areas alongside Arabs. The main leaders were Kamil Pasha al-Qudsi (1920–1922), Mustafa Bey Barmada (1923), and Mar'i Pasha Al Mallah (1924-1925).

The State of Damascus was a French mandate from 1920 to 1925, with Damascus as its capital.

The mainly Sunni people in Aleppo and Damascus did not like Syria being split apart. This led to the quick uniting of Aleppo and Damascus into the State of Syria in 1925.

Sanjak of Alexandretta

Main articles: Sanjak of Alexandretta and Hatay State

The Sanjak of Alexandretta became a special area of Syria under Article 7 of the French-Turkish treaty of October 20, 1921: "A special administrative system will be set up for the area of Alexandretta. The Turkish people living there will have help for their cultural growth. The Turkish language will be officially recognized."

In 1923, Alexandretta was added to the State of Aleppo, and in 1925 it was directly put under the French mandate of Syria, still keeping its special rule. In November 1937, the League helped set up a new agreement giving Alexandretta more self-rule. Under this new plan, Alexandretta was “separate but not apart” from the French Mandate of Syria in diplomacy, linked to both France and Turkey for defense.

In 1938, Turkish soldiers entered the Syrian area and moved out most of its Alawite Arab and Armenian people. Before this, Alawi Arabs and Armenians were most of Alexandretta’s population.

The seats in the assembly of Alexandretta were decided based on a 1938 count done by French officials with international watching. The assembly was chosen in the summer of 1938, and the French-Turkish agreement settling Alexandretta’s status was signed on July 4, 1938.

On September 2, 1938, the assembly announced the Sanjak of Alexandretta as the Hatay State. The state lasted one year under watching from both French and Turkish soldiers. The name Hatay was suggested by Atatürk, and the government was controlled by Turkey. In 1939, after a vote by the people, the Hatay State became a province of Turkey.

State of Jabal Druze

Main article: Jabal al-Druze (state)

On October 24, 1922, an order set up the "Autonomous State of Jabal Druze".

It was made for the Druze people in southern Syria. It had around 50,000 people and its capital was in As-Suwayda.

In 1936, both Jebel Druze and the Alawite State became part of the State of Syria.

Demands for autonomy not granted by the French Mandate authorities

Al-Jazira Province

Main article: Al-Jazira Province

During the time when Syria and Lebanon were under French control after World War I, some groups in a region called Al-Jazira wanted more self-rule. This included people from Assyrian, Kurdish, and Bedouin backgrounds. They asked the French to keep their soldiers there if Syria became independent, fearing that the new government might not treat them fairly. However, the French leaders did not agree to give this area special autonomy.

Golan Region

In another area called the Golan Region, there was a community of Circassian people. In 1938, these leaders also asked for special self-rule, worrying about how they would be treated if Syria became independent. They wanted their region to become a home for Circassian people who had moved there from other places. Like in Al-Jazira, the French did not grant autonomy to the Golan Circassians.

Economy

See also: Banque de Syrie et du Liban

In the early 1920s, France wanted to grow more crops, especially cotton, in parts of Syria. They started investing in 1924, but it wasn’t until the 1930s that they grew more than they had in 1925. Because these areas were closely connected economically, separating trade would have hurt both Syria and Lebanon. To keep trade strong, Britain and France agreed in 1921 to allow free trade between their areas, even though some French businesses didn’t like it. People in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon supported this free trade and successfully stopped plans to end it in 1927. This free trade included local goods, imported goods, processed goods, and goods that were being shipped through.

By 1933, Palestine was the biggest buyer of goods from Syria, and France became the biggest trader with the French Mandate areas. Starting in 1933, Japan also became an important source of imports.

Kingdom of Syria (1918–1920)

The Kingdom of Syria existed for a short time between 1918 and 1920. During this period, there were leaders who helped run the government.

French Mandate of Syria (1920–1939)

This period was part of the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, which started after World War I. The area was under the care of France, which was supposed to help it become independent. During these years, there were different leaders in charge of the government.

High Commissioners

Main article: High Commissioner of the Levant

The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was led by several High Commissioners. These leaders managed the area during the time it was under the care of another country. The leaders included Henri Gouraud, Robert de Caix, Maxime Weygand, Maurice Sarrail, Henry de Jouvenel, Auguste Henri Ponsot, Damien de Martel, Gabriel Puaux, Jean Chiappe, Henri Dentz, Georges Catroux, Jean Helleu, Yves Chataigneau, and Paul Beynet.