Norman Conquest

The Norman Conquest was a big event in the year 1066 when an army from Normandy, led by a man named William the Conqueror, invaded England. This army was made up of Norman, French, Flemish, and Breton soldiers. William claimed he should be the king because he was related to the old king, Edward the Confessor, who had died without children.

When Edward died, another man named Harold Godwinson became king. But then a Norwegian king, Harald Hardrada, also tried to take over England. Harold fought him and won, but then William arrived with his big army. Harold hurried south to fight William, but he lost the battle at Hastings, and William took control of England.

After winning, William had to work hard to keep his place as king. He gave land to his friends, built castles for protection, and made big changes to how England was run. One of his big projects was the Domesday Book, a detailed record of what England looked like at the time. The Norman Conquest changed many parts of English life, including its language and who was in charge.

Origins

In 911, a French ruler named Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings led by Rollo to settle in a place called Normandy. In return, they agreed to protect the coast from other Viking attacks. Over time, these Vikings became known as Normans and adopted the local French culture. They converted to Christianity, learned the Old French language, and mixed with the local people.

Later, in 1002, an English king named Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, a Norman woman. Their son, Edward the Confessor, became king of England in 1042 after living in Normandy for many years. Edward brought many Normans into important positions in England. When Edward died in 1066, there was no clear heir to the throne, leading to a dispute over who should be the next king. Harold Godwinson, a powerful English leader, became king, but soon faced challenges from others, including William of Normandy, who also wanted to be king.

Tostig's raids and the Norwegian invasion

In early 1066, Harold's brother, Tostig Godwinson, led attacks along the southeastern coast of England with ships from Flanders and Orkney. Harold sent part of his army to stop Tostig, but Tostig escaped and went to Scotland to gather more troops.

Around the same time, a Norwegian king named Hardrada arrived in northern England with over 300 ships and many soldiers. He joined forces with Tostig, who wanted to take the throne. They marched toward the city of York and won a battle against local troops led by Edwin, Earl of Mercia and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria at the Battle of Fulford.

King Harold learned of the invasion and quickly marched north with his army. After a nine-day journey, his forces surprised the Norwegian troops at a place called Stamford Bridge near York. In the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold's army defeated the Norwegians. Both Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed, and very few Norwegian soldiers returned home. However, Harold's army was also weakened by the fighting, and they were far from the coast where William, Duke of Normandy, was preparing to invade.

Norman invasion

Norman preparations and forces

William gathered support from Norman leaders and built a large fleet and army from Normandy and other parts of France, including Brittany and Flanders. He prepared to cross the English Channel in late summer, but bad weather delayed his departure until September. The size of William's army is not known for certain, with estimates ranging from 7,000 to 12,000 men, including both foot soldiers and cavalry.

Landing and Harold's march south

The Normans landed in England after Harold defeated Norwegian forces, landing at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September. They built a wooden castle at Hastings and began raiding the area. Harold marched south from the north to face William, covering nearly 200 miles (320 kilometres) in about two weeks. Harold set up a defensive position on Senlac Hill, near present-day Battle, East Sussex, about 6 miles (10 kilometres) from Hastings.

Battle of Hastings

Main article: Battle of Hastings

The battle took place on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day. William's forces, which included cavalry and archers, faced Harold's foot soldiers. The English formed a strong defensive line, but William used tactics such as feigned withdrawals to break their formation. The exact details of Harold's death are unclear, with different sources giving different accounts.

Aftermath

After the battle, William moved towards London. Despite some resistance, the English leaders eventually surrendered to him. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned on 25 December 1066 in Westminster Abbey. He worked to gain the support of some remaining English nobles by confirming their lands and giving others to his supporters. William stayed in England until March 1067 before returning to Normandy.

English resistance

First rebellions

Even though English leaders agreed to follow William, people kept fighting back for years. William left some of his trusted friends in charge while he went away. In 1067, people in Kent tried to attack Dover Castle but failed. In Shropshire, a man named Eadric the Wild joined forces with leaders from Gwynedd and Powys to fight against William’s soldiers in Mercia. William had to come back to deal with these fights. In 1068, he went to Exeter where many people, including Harold’s mother, were holding out. After losing many men, William talked to them and they gave up. Later that year, more people rose up in Mercia and Northumbria. But William built forts and put soldiers there, and these uprisings stopped. Some of Harold’s sons went to Ireland and later attacked places like Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall from the sea.

Revolts of 1069

Main article: Harrying of the North

In early 1069, a Norman leader and his soldiers were killed in Durham. People in Northumbria joined forces with leaders from Scotland, and they attacked York. William quickly went there with his army, fought them, and took control again. He built another fort in York and made things safer. Later, Harold’s sons came from Ireland and fought a battle in Devon but lost. In late 1069, a big group of soldiers came from Denmark and landed on England’s coast. This sparked more uprisings all over the country. The Danes and English rebels together took over York and Northumbria, but they were stopped when William fought back. There were also fights in places like Shropshire, Cheshire, Devon, Cornwall, and Dorset. William chased the Danes away and made sure everyone followed him by the end of 1069.

Danish troubles

Further information: Danish attacks on Norman England and Ely Rebellion

In 1070, the leader of Denmark, Sweyn II, came to England himself and joined forces with English rebels hiding in the marshes of the Fens, especially on the Isle of Ely. After getting some money from William, Sweyn went home, but the rebels stayed. In 1071, there was another big fight in that area. Two English leaders, Edwin and Morcar, turned against William again. Edwin was killed, but Morcar went to Ely and joined the rebels there. William came with his army and, after some hard fighting, finally took over Ely. Morcar was kept in prison, and another rebel leader was allowed to go free and get his land back.

Last resistance

Main article: Revolt of the Earls

In 1072, William went to Scotland and made a deal with their king. In 1075, two important men in England, Ralph de Gael and Roger de Breteuil, tried to take over while William was away. They started their plan at a wedding. Another leader, Waltheof, joined them too. William stayed in his other lands but sent soldiers to stop the rebellion. Ralph was trapped in Norwich Castle and had to give up and leave England. A Danish leader arrived too late. William dealt with everything when he returned later in 1075. Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, and Waltheof was executed in 1076.

Control of England

After the conquest, the Normans had to work hard to keep control of England. There were fewer Normans than the native English people. William gave lands and titles to his followers for their help, but he kept the right to decide what happened to all the land.

William took lands from English lords who had fought against him and gave some to his Norman friends. This caused uprisings, which led to more land being taken. To stop rebellions, the Normans built many castles, often using a special design called motte-and-bailey. These structures helped them stay in power.

William and his successors often ruled England from far away, spending most of their time in France. They created systems to manage England even while they were away, showing their strong hold on the country.

Main article: feudal tenure

Main articles: motte-and-bailey, Capetian conquest

Consequences

Elite replacement

The invasion led to big changes in England. The old English leaders were replaced, and William gave land to his Norman friends. By 1086, only about 5% of land in southern England was still owned by English people. Even this small amount was taken away in the years that followed. English people were also removed from important jobs in government and the church. After 1075, all the top leaders were Normans, and English people were rarely chosen for important positions.

English emigration

After the conquest, many English people left the country. Some went to Scotland, Ireland, or Scandinavia. A large group of English people sailed to the Byzantine Empire in the 1070s. They became important soldiers there, and some settled in areas near the Black Sea, naming their towns things like New London and New York.

Governmental systems

Before the Normans came, England had a well-organized government. The country was divided into areas called shires, each run by officials. England even had a permanent treasury in Winchester. The Normans kept this system but made changes. They brought in new people to run things and changed the official language to Latin. They also created a big survey called the Domesday Book to record who owned land.

Language

The Normans brought their own language, a type of Old French, to England. This became the language of the rulers, and many French words entered English. Names from France became common, like William and Robert. However, English people and Normans likely needed to speak both languages to trade and communicate. William the Conqueror himself never learned English well.

Immigration and intermarriage

About 8,000 Normans and people from other places settled in England. Some married English people, but this was not very common at first. Over time, though, intermarriage became more common. By the 1160s, it was common for people from all levels of society to marry across groups.

Society

It is hard to know exactly how the conquest affected ordinary people. One big change was the end of slavery in England by the middle of the 12th century. Many slaves were no longer needed, and the church did not approve of slavery. Most free peasants seem to have lost some status and became more like serfs. Towns grew, and villages became more common. There is little information about what happened to women, but noblewomen still had some influence through their families.

Historiography

People have argued about the Norman Conquest almost since it happened. One old book, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, spoke badly of William the Conqueror after his death, while a French writer praised him. Ever since, historians have disagreed about what really happened and what it meant.

In more recent times, historians focus on what changed because of the conquest. Some believe it was a major turning point in history, changing England very quickly. Others think the changes were not as big. The debate depends on what you look at—if you think about the end of the old English noble families or the loss of the old English language, the conquest seemed huge. But if you think about other changes happening already, it might not seem so different.