Northern Yuan

The Northern Yuan was a dynastic state ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan based in the Mongolian Plateau. It existed as a rump state after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and lasted until its conquest by the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty in 1635, which was later renamed as the Qing dynasty.

The Northern Yuan dynasty began with the retreat of the Yuan imperial court led by Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong of Yuan) to the Mongolian steppe. This period featured factional struggles and the often only nominal role of the Great Khan.

Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun reunited most Mongol tribes in the late 15th century. However, the former's distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs caused the decentralization of the imperial rule. Despite this decentralization, a remarkable concord continued within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy, and intra-Chinggisid civil war remained unknown until the reign of Ligdan Khan (1604–1634), who saw much of his power weakened in his quarrels with the Mongol tribes and was defeated by the Later Jin dynasty.

The last sixty years of this period featured the intensive penetration of Tibetan Buddhism into Mongol society.

Name

The state that existed between 1368 and 1635 is known by many names, including the Northern Yuan. The official name "_Great Yuan'" (Chinese: 大元) was used between 1368 and 1388, just like the earlier Yuan dynasty. After the death of Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür, the name "Great Yuan" and other Chinese-style titles were stopped by his successor Jorightu Khan Yesüder. So, "Northern Yuan" often refers only to the years between 1368 and 1388. The name "Northern Yuan" comes from the Chinese term "北元" (Běi Yuán), used to tell it apart from the earlier Yuan dynasty that began in 1271.

In English, "Northern Yuan" is usually used for the whole time from 1368 to 1635. Before 1388 and during the rule of Esen Taishi, the Mongols also used "Great Yuan". The Mongols called their state "Ikh Mongol Uls", meaning the "Great Mongol State". Other names include "Post-Imperial Mongolia", the "Mongol(ian) Khaganate", or the "Mongol(ian) Khanate". In Mongolian, this time is called "The Forty and the Four" (Döchin Dörben), meaning forty groups of eastern Mongols and four groups of western Mongols. The Chinese Ming dynasty called them "Tatar" and "Wala" after the Mongols split into eastern and western groups.

History

Origin

The Northern Yuan dynasty was the last part of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) created by Kublai Khan. After defeating the Song dynasty in 1279, the Yuan dynasty ruled all of China proper for about a hundred years. The Mongols had already controlled Northern China for over 40 years before that, after they took over the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1234.

Problems began for the Yuan in 1344 when the Yellow River flooded and changed its path, causing droughts and floods. This made travel on the Grand Canal very difficult. In 1351, a rebellion called the Red Turban Rebellion started in the Huai River valley. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang led this rebellion and later founded the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in southern China. By 1368, a Ming army had reached the Yuan capital, Khanbaliq or Dadu, which is now Beijing.

Retreat to Mongolian Steppe (1368–1388)

Toghon Temür (r. 1333–1370), the last Yuan ruler, fled north to Shangdu in present-day Inner Mongolia when the Ming forces came near. He tried to retake Dadu but failed and died in Yingchang in present-day Inner Mongolia in 1370. Yingchang was soon taken by the Ming.

The Mongols moved to Karakorum in the Mongol heartland after Yingchang fell. They kept calling themselves the "Great Yuan," but people later called them the "Northern Yuan." The Ming army chased them into the Mongolian steppe in 1372 but were defeated by Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara and his general Köke Temür. In 1375, a Mongol official named Naghachu tried to bring back Mongol control in China but finally surrendered to the Ming in 1387–88. Other Yuan supporters in Yunnan and Guizhou were defeated by the Ming in 1381–82.

In 1380, the Ming attacked Northern Yuan and destroyed Karakorum, but they had to leave soon after. Around 70,000 Mongols were captured. In 1387, the Ming defeated the Uriankhai Mongols, and in 1388, they won a big battle near the Buir Lake against Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür. This defeat weakened Yuan power in the steppes and helped the Western Oirat Mongols grow stronger.

The rulers of Northern Yuan still called themselves Emperors of the Great Yuan to challenge the Ming, who saw themselves as the only rightful rulers of China.

Oirat domination (1388–1478)

Restoration (1479–1600)

Second reunification

Manduulun's wife Mandukhai made a young boy named Batumongke the new khan. He was called Dayan, meaning "the whole" or “Great Yuan.” Mandukhai and Dayan worked hard to unite the Mongol tribes. They defeated the Oirats and other leaders who opposed them. By 1510, Dayan had brought most Mongols together.

Dayan divided the Mongols into six groups called tümens, which helped organize them. His youngest son became the leader of the largest group, the Khalkha Mongols. This division created a system that kept peace for about a hundred years.

Last reunification

After Dayan died, the Mongols started to split again. By 1540, new leaders called taijis and their families took control in different areas. A leader named Jasagtu Khan brought the Mongols back together with help from other leaders. He tried to create new laws for the Mongols.

Conversion to Buddhism

Although earlier Yuan rulers followed Buddhism, most Mongols practiced shamanism. Starting in 1575, many Mongols began converting to Tibetan Buddhism. Leaders like Jasagtu Khan and Altan Khan invited Buddhist teachers from Tibet, and soon many Mongols became Buddhist.

Fall (1600–1635)

By the time of Ligdan Khan (r. 1604–1634), the Mongol groups were no longer united. Ligdan controlled only the Chahar tumen, and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols did not follow him.

In 1616, a tribal leader named Nurhaci began to grow powerful. The Jurchens, who lived near the Mongols, were not nomads but had adopted farming. Nurhaci wanted to conquer the Ming dynasty and made alliances with some Mongol groups.

Ligdan fought against these Mongol allies of the Jurchens in 1625. The Jurchen-Mongol army defeated him. In 1628, Ligdan was defeated again and lost control over most Mongols. He died in 1634 while trying to punish a Buddhist group. His son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing dynasty in 1635, ending the rule of the Northern Yuan.

Aftermath

Outer Mongolia

In 1636, the Manchus had taken control of Inner Mongolia, and the Mongol leaders were under their rule. The son of Ligdan Khan, Ejei, died under unclear reasons. His brother Abunai refused to meet with the Manchus, and his son Burni later rebelled but was defeated and died in battle. The Qing rulers then took direct control of the Chahar Mongols.

In Outer Mongolia, the Khalkhas still resisted Manchu control. Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj kept his independence and led the Sechen and Jasagtu khans. Another leader, Altan Khan of the Khalkha, also emerged. After losing Inner Mongolia and an important seal, the Mongols looked for a new source of power. In 1639, Gombodorj's son became the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the main spiritual leader for Buddhists in Mongolia. Gombodorj tried to keep peace with the Manchus by sending gifts but failed after the Manchus defeated the Ming dynasty and took Beijing in 1644. In 1646, a Mongol leader rebelled but was defeated. In 1647, Gombodorj fought the Qing with 50,000 cavalry but neither side won clearly. Both sides lost many men, and the Mongols could no longer challenge the Qing directly.

Dzungar Khanate

To the west, around 1600–1620, the Oirats united under Kharkhul. In 1635, they formed the Dzungar Khanate under Erdeni Batur, Kharkhul's son. This union happened partly because of wars with the Altan Khans. After Jasagtu Khan Shira lost some of his people to Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan Boshugtu Khan of the Dzungars moved his camp near the Altai Mountains to plan an attack. Chikhundorj attacked and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan sent troops against Chikhundorj but they were defeated, and Dorji-jav was killed. Chikhundorj then killed Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasagtu Khan. To revenge his brother, Galdan made friends with the Russians, who were fighting Chikhundorj over land near Lake Baikal. With Russian weapons, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar soldiers into Outer Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj quickly. The Siberian Cossacks also defeated a Khalkha army near Lake Baikal. After tough battles near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chikhundorj and his brother Zanabazar, the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, fled across the Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and surrendered to the Kangxi Emperor.

By 1690, Galdan controlled Outer Mongolia up to the edge of Manchuria before moving east toward Beijing. The Qing worried about this and the Kangxi Emperor blocked Galdan. In late summer 1690, Galdan crossed the Kherlen River with 20,000 soldiers and fought a Qing army at the Battle of Ulan Butung, north of Beijing. Galdan had to retreat because the Qing army could not follow him. In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into Mongolia. Galdan fled but was caught by another Qing army and defeated at the Battle of Jao Modo. Galdan's wife, Anu, was killed, and the Qing took many cattle and sheep. Galdan escaped with a few followers and died in the Altai Mountains in 1697. His nephew Tsewang Rabtan took control of Dzungaria by 1691. Outer Mongolia became part of the Qing Empire, and the Khalkha leaders returned as vassals. The Qing placed soldiers in Ulaanbaatar. The Dzungars later expanded into Tibet and Kazakhstan but were conquered by the Qing in 1755, ending all resistance by 1758.