Nubia

Nubia is a historic region in Africa, located along the Nile River between the Blue and White Niles near Khartoum in Sudan and the First Cataract south of Aswan in Egypt. It was home to one of the earliest civilizations of ancient Africa, known as the Kerma culture, which thrived from around 2500 BC until it was conquered by Egypt around 1500 BC.

The region later became the heart of the Kingdom of Kush, which even conquered Egypt in the eighth century BC, ruling as its 25th Dynasty. Over the centuries, Nubia experienced many changes, including invasions by Greeks and Romans, and the rise and fall of Christian kingdoms such as Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia.

Eventually, Nubia was divided and influenced by the Ottoman Empire and the Sennar sultanate, leading to its partition between modern-day Egypt and Sudan. Ancient Nubians made important contributions, including early developments in antibiotics and tools for measuring time. The study of Nubia's past, called Nubiology, brings together archaeology, history, and language studies to understand this fascinating region.

Linguistics

The people of Nubia have spoken many different languages over time. Two main groups of languages were used there: Nubian languages, which include Nobiin, Dongolawi, and Midob, and languages spoken in the Nuba Mountains and Darfur. One language called Birgid was used near Nyala but it is no longer spoken. The ancient people of the Kerma culture in Nubia may have spoken a different language, but it is not fully known what language they used.

Geography

See also: Aethiopia, Archaeological expeditions to Nubia, and Nile boat

Nubia was split into three main areas: Upper, Middle, and Lower Nubia. These areas were named based on their places along the Nile. "Lower" meant the areas farther north, closer to the beginning of the river, while "upper" meant the areas farther south. Lower Nubia was between the First and Second Cataracts in what is now Egypt. Middle Nubia was between the Second and Third Cataracts. Upper Nubia was south of the Third Cataract.

History

Prehistory (before 6000–3500 BC)

Archaeological evidence shows that people in the Nile Valley were fishing, hunting, and gathering food, and later began herding animals.

Affad 23, an archaeological site in northern Sudan, has remains of very old camps and tools from hunting and gathering, dating back about 50,000 years.

In southern Nubia, people created beautiful pottery during the ninth to sixth millennia BC. By 5000 BC, people in Nubia began to raise sheep, goats, and cattle. Rock art from this time shows scenes of cattle, which were important in the area. Nubia also has early examples of structures that may have been used for tracking the stars, even earlier than similar ones in Europe.

Pre-Kerma; A-Group (3500-3000 BC)

In Upper Nubia, a culture known as "pre-Kerma" existed on fertile land south of the Third Cataract.

Nubia has one of the oldest civilizations in the world, often linked with Egypt to the north. Around 3500 BC, the A-Group culture began in Lower Nubia. They were farmers, traded with Egyptians, and exported gold. They made black-topped, red pottery. During this time, some believe Nubian and Egyptian rulers shared similar symbols.

Early Kerma (3000–2400 BC)

The Gash group, a culture of nomadic herders, existed east and west of Nubia from 3000 to 1500 BC.

In Lower Nubia, the A-group moved into the Terminal phase, and kings at Qustul likely ruled all of Lower Nubia. The A-Group culture ended between 3100 and 2900 BC, likely due to Egyptian conquest. For the next 600 years, there is no evidence of settlement in Lower Nubia. Old Kingdom Egyptian dynasties controlled the area and raided Upper Nubia.

Early Kerma; C-Group (2400–1550 BC)

In Upper Nubia, the pre-Kerma developed into the Middle phase Kerma group. Some A-group people settled the area and lived together with the pre-Kerma group. Both groups made red pottery with black tops but in different shapes. Traces of the C-group disappear by 2000 BC, and Kerma culture began to dominate Upper Nubia. The power of an independent Upper Nubia increased around 1700 BC, and it came to control Lower Nubia.

In Lower Nubia, C-group Nubians resettled by 2400 BC. As trade with Egypt grew, so did wealth and stability. Nubia was divided into small kingdoms. The C-group culture flourished from 2500 BC to 1500 BC. They lived near Egyptians but did not adopt much of Egyptian culture, except for some communities and bowmen.

Kerma; Egyptian Empire (1550–1100 BC)

From the Middle Kerma phase, the first Nubian kingdom to unify much of the region arose. The Classic Kerma culture, named for its royal capital at Kerma, was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region. By 1650 BC, Kerma kings were powerful enough to build large structures and have rich tombs.

Kerma culture was known for its military strength, with many archers and weapons found in graves. Despite this, Nubian elites often rebelled against Egyptian rule. There were many conflicts between Nubia and Egypt until the 20th dynasty.

Napatan Empire (750–542 BC)

The Napatan Empire marked a return to traditional Egyptian practices, with a focus on restoring temples and religious sites. Piye, the first king of this empire, expanded the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal and took control of Egypt. His successors continued to rule parts of Egypt and built pyramids.

Meroitic (542 BC–400 AD)

Meroë became the southern capital of the Kingdom of Kush due to pressure from Assyrians and Egyptians. The city was important for iron production and trade with India and China. The Meroitic people developed their own writing system based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and worshiped both Egyptian and local gods.

Christian Nubia

Around 350 AD, the Kingdom of Aksum invaded and the Meroitic kingdom fell. It was replaced by three smaller Christian kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. Christianity spread to the region, and the kingdoms became strong enough to resist the spread of Islam for centuries.

Islamic Nubia

In the fourteenth century, the Dongolan government collapsed, and the region was divided. Over time, Arab invasions and the spread of Islam led to the decline of the Nubian kingdoms. By the nineteenth century, the entire region came under Egyptian control.

21st-century archaeology

Scientists have studied the bones of people who lived in Nubia from very old times up until around 1500 BC. They found that people from the older Mesolithic time were strong and tall, but later during the Neolithic time, they were a bit shorter and not as strong. Over many thousands of years, their faces and skull shapes changed a lot. These changes happened because of people moving into the area and mixing with others.

In 2003, a team of Swiss scientists led by Charles Bonnet found amazing black granite statues near Kerma. These statues were made for the last two pharaohs of Egypt’s 25th Dynasty, Taharqa and Tanoutamon, and are considered some of the greatest works of art ever made. Studies of the bones from Kerma showed they were very similar to people from ancient Egypt and other places in Africa.

Contemporary issues

After colonial times ended, Nubia was split between Egypt and Sudan. This happened when Egypt became a country in 1953 and Sudan separated from Egypt in 1956.

In the 1970s, many Nubian people had to move from their homes to make space for Lake Nasser. This lake was created when big dams were built near Aswan. Today, you can still find Nubian villages north of Aswan and on Elephantine Island. Many Nubians also live in big cities such as Cairo and Khartoum.

Ancient DNA

Scientists studied old bones from Nubia to learn about the people who lived there long ago. In 2014, they looked at a baby from a place called Wadi Halfa, which was near the Nile River. They found that this baby's DNA showed a mix of African and European ancestry.

In 2015, they studied another person from Kulubnarti and found that this person’s ancestry was closer to people from the Middle East and parts of Asia, not to other African groups.

In 2021, researchers studied the DNA of 66 people from Kulubnarti who lived between 650 and 1000 AD. They found that these people had a mix of ancestry from both Europe and Africa, with about 60% from Europe and 40% from Africa. This European ancestry was similar to that of ancient people from places like the Levant.

In 2022, scientists studied the DNA from an even older person who lived during the Kerma period, around 4000 years ago. They found that this person was closely related to early herding people from eastern Africa, showing about 40% ancestry from Europe as well. This suggests that herding people moved down the Nile River a long time ago.

Nubian Images

Here are some important images from ancient Nubia:

• Nubian terracotta female figurine from around 3500–3100 BC, Brooklyn Museum
• Nubian king with a bow, Buhen Fortress, 1650 BC, University of Chicago Museum
• Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy
• Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal
• Entrance to Great Enclosure, Musawwarat es-Sufra
• Column and elephant – part of temple complex in Musawwarat es-Sufra
• Pyramid of Amanishakheto
• Jewelry of Kandake Amanishakheto
• Copy of relief from Naqa showing Amanitore, Natakamani and two princes approaching a three-headed Apedemak
• The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC, National Museum of Sudan
• Bishop Petros, Christian Nubia
• The Relief of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman probably shows the victory of an early Pharaoh, possibly Djer, over A-Group Nubians around 3000 BC
• Former Christian Nubian wall painting in the Temple of Kalabsha