Pagan kingdom

The Pagan kingdom was the first Burmese kingdom to unify the regions that make up modern-day Myanmar. It began as a small 9th-century settlement called Pagan by the Mranma people, who were the ancestors of today's Bamar people. Over time, it grew into a powerful empire. By the 1050s and 1060s, under King Anawrahta, it united the Irrawaddy valley and surrounding areas for the first time.

At its height in the 12th and 13th centuries, Pagan was one of the two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia, alongside the Khmer Empire. It stretched south into the upper Malay Peninsula, east to the Salween River, north near the current China border, and west into northern Arakan and the Chin Hills. The kingdom helped spread the Burmese language, culture, and Theravada Buddhism throughout the region.

Pagan's rulers built thousands of Buddhist temples, with over 10,000 built in the Bagan area alone, though only about 2,000 remain today. However, the kingdom began to weaken in the mid-13th century. As more land was given to religious groups without taxes, the king's ability to pay his army and officials suffered. This led to problems within the kingdom and attacks from outside forces, including the Mongols. Repeated Mongol invasions finally ended the kingdom in 1287, leading to a long period of division in the region.

Names

The old name for the kingdom in the Pali language was Arimaddanapura, which means "Foe-Crushing City." In Burmese, the kingdom is called ပုဂံ (pugam), often written as Pagan or Bagan in English.

The ruler of Arimaddana once had a disagreement with a king from Ceylon and treated his messengers badly. Later, another king from Ceylon made peace with the ruler of Arimaddana through a friendly letter, which helped the Buddhist monks from both places work together better.

History

Origins

The origins of the Pagan kingdom come from both old stories and archaeological findings. Local tales from the 18th century say the kingdom began in 167 AD when Pyusawhti started ruling at Pagan (Bagan). Some stories link the kingdom to ancient India and the family of the Buddha.

Modern research suggests the Pagan kingdom began in the mid-to-late 9th century AD when people from the Nanzhao kingdom moved into the area. Before this, the Pyu people lived in the region and built early towns and cities. The Pyu had systems for managing water and created one of Southeast Asia’s earliest urban areas.

Early Pagan

Over time, people from the Nanzhao kingdom, called Burmans, settled in the Pagan area. They brought their own traditions but also adopted many Pyu customs, especially in religion and culture. By the mid-10th century, Pagan had become an important place, growing stronger and controlling more land.

Pagan Empire

In 1044 AD, a prince named Anawrahta took control. He turned Pagan into a big kingdom, bringing together many areas around the Irrawaddy valley. Anawrahta built canals to help grow rice and made Pagan a strong and wealthy place.

Later kings continued to build and improve the kingdom. They created temples, expanded the land they controlled, and made Pagan a center for culture and religion. The kingdom reached its height under kings like Narapatisithu and Htilominlo, who built many famous temples and organized the government.

Decline

Over time, the kingdom began to weaken. Giving away land for religious purposes reduced the resources the king could use. By the mid-13th century, the kingdom struggled to manage its lands and keep control.

Fall

In the late 1200s, the Mongols from China invaded Pagan. Though the damage may not have been huge, the kingdom could not stay together. After the king died, different parts of the kingdom broke away and formed their own rule. By the early 1300s, Pagan was no longer a large kingdom, though some of its leaders continued to have influence in smaller areas.

Government

Pagan's government followed a special system called the mandala. The king ruled the main area directly, called the pyi, and managed faraway places as tributary states, known as naingngans. The closer you were to the capital, the more control the king had. Each area had three levels: provinces (taing), towns (myo), and villages (ywa), with the king's court in the middle.

The main area was the Dry Zone of Upper Myanmar, about 150 to 250 kilometres from the capital. It included important places like Kyaukse and Minbu, which helped grow food and gather people for the army. The king ruled the capital and trusted family members governed key areas. Farther places were ruled by local leaders or appointed governors who sent gifts to the king but mostly made their own decisions. Over time, Pagan tried to bring important areas like Lower Myanmar closer to the capital by appointing its own governors, but full control took many years. In distant areas like Arakan and the Shan Hills, the king had little say and only received occasional gifts.

The court was the heart of government, handling all important decisions. It included the king, royal family members, ministers, and other leaders. The king was the top leader but shared duties with the court, which grew larger over time. By the early 1200s, a group called the Hluttaw helped manage daily tasks and the army. The court also handled fairness and justice, with early kings setting rules for decisions.

The military started with a small group protecting the palace and grew to include many people called up for wars. Local leaders provided soldiers based on their area's population. The army included foot soldiers, elephant teams, horse riders, and navy forces. Estimates suggest Pagan's army ranged from 30,000 to 60,000 people, though some numbers might be very high guesses.

Main article: Military history of Pagan Dynasty

Economy

The economy of Pagan was mainly based on agriculture, with trade playing a smaller role. The growth of the Pagan Empire and the development of new farmlands helped increase the population and made the economy stronger. The economy also grew because there was little warfare, which helped it stay healthy.

Agriculture was the most important part of the kingdom's economy from the beginning in the 9th century. People in Pagan used new ways to manage water, which helped them grow more food. This allowed the kingdom to grow beyond the dry areas and control more land.

Pagan also focused on trade, especially through its ports, which connected it to places like China and the Indian Ocean. Trade brought in valuable goods like coral and pearls, but it was not the main driver of the economy.

Pagan did not use coins like other places. Instead, they used pieces of silver, called kyats, as money. This made trade a bit more complicated, and sometimes people traded goods directly instead of using money.

Main article: Michael Aung-Thwin

Main article: kyat (unit)

Main article: Tripiṭaka

Culture and society

Pagan society was organized into different classes. At the top were the royal family, followed by officials, artisans, and commoners. The Buddhist clergy was important but not a secular class.

People were mostly commoners, divided into groups like royal servants who worked for the king in exchange for land, and others who paid taxes but did not serve the king directly. Some worked only for private owners or temples.

The main language was Burmese, but Pyu and Mon were also used. Burmese became more common over time. The Burmese alphabet spread during this period. Writing was still new, and most people learned about Buddhism through stories and art rather than books.

Pagan’s religion mixed Theravada Buddhism with other traditions like Mahayana Buddhism, Hindu practices, and local animist beliefs. Theravada Buddhism became more important over time, especially after the king supported it. Temples were built, but many people still followed older customs, like worshipping spirits.

Pagan is famous for its architecture, with over 2000 temples still standing today. The city planning and water management techniques were important for the kingdom’s economy. Temples were built in two main styles: solid stupas and hollow temples used for worship. The stupas evolved from earlier designs, becoming more bell-shaped over time. Hollow temples had different styles, like one or four main entrances, and some had unique pentagonal shapes.

Legacy

The Pagan kingdom played a very important role in the history of Myanmar and Southeast Asia. Its 250 years of rule helped the Burmese language and culture grow stronger. It also helped spread the Bamar people and their traditions.

Pagan also helped protect and grow Theravada Buddhism. This type of Buddhism was losing ground in other places, but Pagan gave it a safe place to grow. Because of Pagan's support, Theravada Buddhism could later spread to places like northern Thailand, central Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.