Paganism

Paganism is a term that early Christians used to describe the many different religious practices of people who believed in many gods. The word comes from a Latin word meaning "rustic," and it often referred to people who lived in the countryside or were far away from big cities. Back then, pagans were mainly those who were not part of the Abrahamic religions, like Christianity, Judaism, or Islam, especially in the Roman Empire.

One big sign that someone was considered a pagan was if they took part in ritual sacrifices, which were important in the religions of ancient Greece and Rome. Over time, Christians used the word “pagan” to talk about anyone who did not believe in their idea of God, often calling them followers of false gods.

In more recent times, the word paganism has been used in new ways. In the 19th century, artists and thinkers inspired by ancient cultures began calling themselves pagans. Today, many people who follow modern pagan traditions do so because they value nature worship and other ideas that are different from the world’s largest religions. These modern pagan beliefs can include many gods, a belief that everything is part of God (pantheism), or that spirits live in all things (animism). We learn about ancient pagan religions from studying old writings, artifacts, and the cultures of classical antiquity.

Etymology and nomenclature

Pagan

Further information: Pagus

People did not call themselves pagans to describe their own religion until the 20th century. The idea of paganism, as we understand it today, was created by early Christians. They used the word "pagan" as a way to describe others who did not follow their beliefs. This word was important for Christians as they defined who they were and who they were not.

The word "pagan" comes from a Latin word, paganus, which meant "country dweller" or "villager." Over time, it came to mean someone who was not a soldier of Christ. Early Christians often saw themselves as soldiers, and they used this word to describe those who were not part of their group.

Hellene

Further information: Hellenes (religion)

In the eastern part of the Roman Empire, people who followed the old religions of Ancient Greece were called "Hellenes." This name came from the Greek word for "Greeks." Early Christians, many of whom were Jewish, used this term to describe people who did not follow Christianity. Some followers of the old religions later began to call themselves Hellenes as well, but not everyone liked this change.

Heathen

"Heathen" is an old word from English that meant someone who was not Christian or Jewish. It came from a word used in old German languages. Today, some people who follow old Germanic religions call themselves "Heathens."

Definition

Defining paganism is tricky. Early Christians used the word to describe many different groups of people who practiced various religions. These groups were often called "pagan" because they did not follow the Christian belief in one God.

Many of these ancient people believed in many gods, but some also believed in one main god with many lesser spirits or powers. What really set them apart from Christians was that they did not worship the same one true God that Christians believed in. So, to Christians, anyone who did not share their belief was considered a pagan, no matter what they actually believed.

Perception and Ethnocentrism

When early Christians talked about people who followed different religions, they often called them "pagans." They thought these people only cared about enjoying life and didn't worry about the future or big religions. This was a way to make their own beliefs seem better.

Later, people realized this idea of "pagan" was unfair. It came from a view where one group's religion was seen as better than others. Scholars like David Petts explained that calling many different beliefs "pagan" was a way to say they were not as important as the main religions, rather than studying them for what they were. This way of thinking was tied to treating some cultures as less important than others.

History

Prehistoric

Prehistoric religion includes Paleolithic religion.

Bronze Age to Early Iron Age

Religions of the ancient Near East include:

• Ancient Egyptian religion
• Ancient Semitic religion
• Ancient Iranian religion
• Ancient Mesopotamian religion

Ancient history

Classical antiquity

Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Hellenistic religion, and Roman imperial cult were key practices.

Ludwig Feuerbach described classical antiquity’s paganism as a unity of religion and politics, spirit and nature, god and man. Modern historians see it as civic cult acts without a written creed or strict orthodoxy.

Late Antiquity

The term “pagan” arose with Christianity to describe non-Christian peoples and practices in the Roman Empire.

Early Christianity developed alongside other monotheistic and polytheistic cults like Dionysus, Neoplatonism, Mithraism, Gnosticism, and Manichaeanism. The cult of Dionysus influenced Early Christian themes, with Christianity defining itself against “paganism” while adopting some of its practices.

In Albania

Paganism in Albania shows how folk religious practices survived Christian conversion. Albanian folklore evolved in isolated areas, preserving pagan rituals despite later Christian, Muslim, and Marxist influences. Traditional customs, like the Kanun law, remained influential across religions.

Postclassical history

The Byzantine lineage

Christianity reached Mani in the 10th century, but full conversion took until the 11th–12th centuries. The Maniots, isolated by mountains, were among the last Greeks to abandon old traditions.

The End of the Athenian and Alexandrian Schools (5th–6th Century)

Byzantine intellectuals managed theological risks by strategies like intellectual accommodation. Key figures included Proclus, Damascius, Ammonius Hermiae, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Dionysius of Thrace, who preserved Hellenic thought through abstraction, accommodation, and academic preservation.

The Macedonian Renaissance and Komnenian Era (9th–12th Century)

Scholars like Leo the Mathematician, Photius, Arethas of Caesarea, Michael Psellos, John Italos, Eustratios of Nicaea, and Michael of Ephesus used strategies like disclaimers, archival preservation, and political strategy to preserve pagan texts.

The Palaiologan Renaissance (13th–15th Century)

Figures like Gregory Choniades, Maximus Planudes, Theodore Metochites, and Georgios Gemistos Plethon used strategies like technical translation, literary preservation, apologetic integration, and radical dissimulation to manage classical texts.

The Arabic transmission

In the Near East, traditions like advanced astrology and Hermetic alchemy survived through non-Muslim communities like the Sabians of Harran, who used religious dissimulation while contributing to Arabic scholarship.

Harran

Harran preserved a syncretic religion blending Mesopotamian paganism with Neoplatonism, serving as an intellectual hub during the Abbasid period. The city adopted the protected status of “Sabians” under the Quran, ensuring its survival.

The Sabian Core: Pagan Identity and Literary Transmission

The Sabians maintained a pagan identity, viewing scientific studies as part of their religious practice. Scholars like Thābit ibn Qurra contributed to mathematics, astronomy, and translation, preserving esoteric knowledge.

The Transmission to the Latin West (13th Century)

The Arabic intellectual heritage, including Sabian influences, reached the Latin West through figures like Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and his scholar Michael Scot, who translated and disseminated works on astrology and philosophy.

Islam in Arabia

Arab paganism faded during Muhammad’s era through Islamization. One of the last campaigns was the Demolition of Dhul Khalasa in 632 AD.

Modern history

Early Modern Renaissance

The Ordine Osirideo Egizio claimed descent from Alexandrian priests, preserving ancient pagan rites. During the Renaissance, figures like Raimondo di Sangro revived these practices.

Modern theories suggest an unbroken chain of initiatory figures preserving pagan elements through humanism and occultism.

15th century

• Giovanni Pontano (1426–1503)

16th century

• Giambattista della Porta (1535–1615)
• Giordano Bruno (1548–1600)
• Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639)

17th–18th centuries

• Raimondo di Sangro (1710–1771)
• Alessandro Cagliostro (1743–1795)
• Vincenzo di Sangro
• Mario Pagano (1748–1799)
• Pietro Colletta (1775–1831)
• Domenico Bocchini

19th century

• Gabriele Rossetti (1783–1854)
• Orazio De Attellis (1790–1860)
• Edward Bulwer-Lytton (1803–1873)
• Giuseppe Gallone (1820–1880)
• Pasquale del Pezzo (1825–1890)
• Michelangelo Caetani (1804–1882)
• Pasquale De Servis (1815–1880)
• Giustiniano Lebano (1832–1910)
• Ciro Formisano (Giuliano Kremmerz) (1861–1930)
• Leone Caetani (1869–1935)

Late Modern Romanticism

The 19th century saw scholarly interest in reconstructing pagan mythology from folklore. Figures like the Brothers Grimm and Elias Lönnrot collected tales, influencing others to see them as representative of national identities.

Poets like G. K. Chesterton and Algernon Charles Swinburne explored pagan themes in ethical and cultural discourse. Romanticism coincided with national myth-making and musical nationalism, portraying historic polytheists as noble figures.

In Italy

After the fall of the Papal States, Italian unification fostered anti-clerical sentiment. Groups like the Brotherhood of Myriam revived ancient Egyptian and Greco-Egyptian rituals. Figures like Giacomo Boni and Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo promoted Roman religious practices. In 1927, Julius Evola founded the Gruppo di Ur, advocating Italian political paganism.

Late 20th century

The 1960s–1970s saw a rise in neo-Druidism and modern Germanic paganism. Wicca, influenced by feminism, led to Dianic Wicca. Books like Margot Adler’s Drawing Down the Moon and Starhawk’s The Spiral Dance increased public awareness. Pagan gatherings and festivals grew in the 1980s, leading to diverse, eclectic traditions.

Interest in pre-Christian Roman spirituality revived post-fascism, influenced by Julius Evola. Groups like the Gruppo dei Dioscuri emerged, publishing booklets before fading. Journals like Arthos and Politica Romana explored Roman religion.

The Internet’s growth in the 1990s accelerated pagan movements. After the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, freedom of religion allowed growth in various religions, including paganism.

Modern paganism

Main article: Modern paganism

21st century

In the 2000s, Associazione Tradizionale Pietas started rebuilding temples in Italy and asked the government to recognize their practices. They were inspired by groups like YSEE in Greece. In 2023, Pietas joined a meeting called ECER and signed a document called the Riga Declaration. This document asks European countries to recognize old European religions. Public celebrations of ancient festivals, like the Natale di Roma, have also started again.

The idea of following ancient Roman religion has spread beyond Italy. People who practice it can be found in many European countries and in the Americas. The biggest group is Nova Roma, which was started in 1998 and has members all over the world.

Modern paganism, also called Neopaganism, includes many different ways of practicing old religions. Some groups try to copy ancient religions very closely, like Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism, Hellenism, Slavic Native Faith, Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, and heathenry. Other groups mix old ideas with new ones, like Wicca and its branches, Neo-Druidism, and Discordianism.

Some people who copy old religions are different from others who mix old and new ideas. They disagree about many things, like how closely to follow old practices, how to think about magic, which holidays to celebrate, and what to call their beliefs.

In 1717, John Toland became the first leader of a group called the Ancient Druid Order. Many modern groups like Wicca and Neo-Druidism started in the 1800s and have ideas from older magic and spiritual teachings. Most modern pagans believe that nature is very important and full of spirit. They often call their beliefs "Earth religions."

Some writers have looked at how modern pagan groups relate to very old religions and to folk beliefs today. Isaac Bonewits made up words to describe these differences.

Neopaganism
This is the name for the modern movement that loves nature and old, pre-Christian religions or other nature-based spiritual paths. It often includes ideas that are fair and open to everyone. Groups like Wicca, Neo-Druidism, Heathenry, and Slavic Native Faith are part of this.

Paleopaganism
This word is used to describe the very old, original religions that honored many gods and nature, like the religions of ancient Greece, Rome, Germany, and Celtic lands.

Mesopaganism
This includes groups that mix older beliefs with new ideas from other religions. Examples are some Native American and Australian Aboriginal traditions, Viking Age Norse paganism, and New Age beliefs. They also include faiths like Haitian Vodou, Santería, and Espiritu religion. Isaac Bonewits also includes British Traditional Wicca in this group.

Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick said that pagan religions often have these traits:

• Polytheism: Pagan religions believe in many gods, who may be part of one bigger divine force.
• Nature-based: Some pagan religions see nature as full of spirit and very important.
• Sacred feminine: Some pagan religions honor a female divine force, called the Goddess, along with or instead of a male divine force.

In modern times, the words Heathen and Heathenry often refer to groups inspired by the old religions of Germanic, Scandinavian, and Anglo-Saxon peoples.

In Iceland, a group called Ásatrúarfélagið has nearly 2% of the country’s people, about six thousand. In Lithuania, many people practice Romuva, a revived version of their country’s old religion. Lithuania was one of the last places in Europe to adopt Christianity. Heathenry has been officially recognized in Australia since the 1930s.

Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe

Further information: Christianization

Many different groups in Europe had their own ways of believing and worshipping before Christianity became common. These included the beliefs of the Proto-Indo-European people, Albanians, Baltic peoples, Basque people, Celtic peoples, Etruscans, Finnic peoples, Germanic tribes, the Ancient Greeks, the Minoans, the Mari people, the Norse, the people of Ancient Rome, the Sámi, the Slavic peoples, and the Thracians. Each of these groups had their own special stories, gods, and ways of celebrating.

Reconstructionist groups

Some people today practice old ways of worshipping from places like ancient Greece and other cultures. These groups include Hellenism and Romuva. They try to learn about and follow the beliefs and traditions of people who lived long ago.