Philippine Revolution

The Philippine Revolution was a war of independence fought by the revolutionary group called the Katipunan against the Spanish Empire from 1896 to 1898. It marked the end of over 300 years of Spanish control over the Philippines. The revolution began in secret in 1892, led by Andrés Bonifacio, who wanted to free the Filipino people from foreign rule.

Early battles took place near the capital city of Manila, but the revolutionaries had more success in areas like Cavite, where leaders such as Emilio Aguinaldo won important victories. Unfortunately, disagreements among leaders caused problems within the movement. In 1897, Bonifacio was arrested and executed, and Aguinaldo took control of the revolutionary government.

When the United States went to war with Spain in 1898, Filipino forces worked together with American troops for a short time. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence in Kawit. However, the United States did not recognize this independence and instead took control of the Philippines. This led to another war between Filipino forces and the United States. Eventually, the Philippines became a U.S. territory and worked toward full independence, which was finally achieved in 1946.

Summary

The main ideas for change began in the early 1800s when the Philippines opened up to world trade. This brought new ideas to the country. In 1896, a group called the Katipunan started a fight for independence from Spain. This was after 333 years of Spanish rule.

The revolution began in Central Luzon and spread to Cavite province. In 1898, after a battle with Spain, Emilio Aguinaldo announced Philippine independence. Later, the Philippines faced new challenges as it dealt with the United States.

Background

Origins and causes

The Philippine Revolution grew from ideas shared with the world, leading to national efforts for independence. Filipino nationalism developed slowly but surely. Abuses by Spanish rulers, soldiers, and church leaders over 300 years, and reports of these abuses by educated Filipinos in the late 1800s, helped unite the Filipino people. However, nationalism grew slowly because Filipinos found it hard to connect with each other socially and economically.

Before Manila opened to world trade, Spanish rulers did not allow foreign merchants to live in the Philippines or do business there. Laws from 1800 to 1857 kept foreigners out. But after the British captured Manila in 1762–1764, Spain realized it could not keep the Philippines isolated. In 1789, foreign ships were allowed to bring Asian goods to Manila. In 1834, a royal decree opened Manila to world trade.

After Manila opened to trade, Spanish merchants lost their control over the Philippine economy. By 1859, 15 foreign businesses operated in Manila. American businesses arrived in 1834 but later lost ground to British competition. By the 1870s, British merchants dominated Manila's finances.

In 1842, Spain sent Sinibaldo de Mas to study the Philippine economy. He suggested opening more ports, encouraging Chinese immigration, and ending the tobacco monopoly. Spain responded by opening ports such as Sual, Pangasinan; Iloilo; Zamboanga; Cebu; Legazpi; and Tacloban between 1855 and 1873.

Before the revolution, Filipino society had class divisions based on wealth, background, and ancestry. Spanish people and native nobles were in the upper class, split into peninsulares (Spanish-born), creoles (Spanish-born in colonies), and principalía (local nobles). The principalía included leaders of the revolution, like José Rizal. The lower class, called Indios, included poor commoners, peasants, and laborers. Most Katipunan members came from this group.

The 19th century brought wealth and an educated middle class of farmers, teachers, lawyers, doctors, writers, and government workers. They read books, discussed politics, and sent their children to colleges in Manila and abroad. These educated Filipinos, called Ilustrados, led the first steps of the revolution.

In 1868, a revolution in Spain replaced Queen Isabella II with a liberal government. In 1869, Governor-General Carlos María de la Torre arrived and was welcomed by Filipino leaders for his liberal policies. An Assembly of Reformists formed but achieved no changes before ending in 1874.

Ideas from the American and French Revolutions spread to the Philippines in the late 18th century. Filipinos began demanding control of their churches, leading to conflicts with church leaders. In 1823, a creole captain named Andres Novales declared Philippine independence and crowned himself emperor. In 1872, soldiers and workers at Cavite Arsenal rebelled but were crushed. Priests Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora were executed and remembered as Gomburza.

Organizations

La Solidaridad, La Liga Filipina and the Propaganda Movement

After a big protest in 1872 and the sending of many Filipinos to faraway places, some Filipinos moved to Europe, especially to Madrid. There, leaders like Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, and Antonio Luna started a newspaper called La Solidaridad. This newspaper asked for changes in the Philippines and shared ideas about fighting for freedom. This effort is called the Propaganda Movement. The newspaper was written by important people like Graciano López Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and José Rizal. They wanted fair laws, better rights, and more freedom for Filipinos, but many of their ideas were not put into action.

Katipunan

Main article: Katipunan

In 1892, Andrés Bonifacio and some friends created a group called the Katipunan in Manila. This group wanted to fight for independence from Spain using an armed revolt. The Katipunan grew quickly to many places such as Batangas, La Laguna, Cavite, Bulacan, and more. Most members were from ordinary families. The group had its own rules and leaders, with Bonifacio becoming the main leader by 1895.

History

Course of the Revolution

The Katipunan, a group seeking Philippine independence from Spain, was discovered by colonial authorities. This led to arrests and executions, including that of Don Francisco Roxas. On August 24, 1896, the group decided to start an armed revolution against Spain. This began with tearing up community tax certificates and shouting patriotic cries. The exact date and location of this event, known as the Cry of Pugad Lawin or Cry of Balintawak, is debated.

After the discovery, Bonifacio gathered Katipunan members to plan their next steps. On August 24, plans were made to attack Manila on August 29. Bonifacio appointed generals to lead the rebel forces. Before fighting began, Bonifacio reorganized the Katipunan into an open revolutionary government, with himself as president.

Fighting broke out on August 25 when rebels clashed with Spanish forces. More skirmishes followed, and by August 30, the revolt had spread to eight provinces. The Spanish declared a state of war and placed these provinces under martial law. The rebels, mostly armed with knives and spears, faced challenges, especially when leaders from Cavite did not send troops to Manila due to lack of preparation.

Final statement and execution of José Rizal

When the revolution began, Rizal was in Cavite. He had volunteered for medical service in the Spanish Army but was imprisoned upon his return. While in prison, Rizal wrote a statement criticizing the use of his name to support the rebellion and condemning the insurrection.

Revolution in Cavite

By December, rebellion centers included Cavite, Bulacan, and Morong. In Cavite, early victories were achieved by leaders like Emilio Aguinaldo. However, rivalries developed between different Katipunan councils. Bonifacio tried to mediate but was seen as favoring one group. Leadership disputes grew, especially when Aguinaldo’s successes contrasted with Bonifacio’s defeats.

Tejeros Convention

In December, an assembly was held to resolve leadership disputes. Another meeting on March 22, 1897, led to elections for a revolutionary government. Bonifacio lost the election for leadership to Aguinaldo and left angrily. He moved his headquarters and later faced arrest orders from Aguinaldo.

Execution of Bonifacio

Bonifacio was arrested and tried for sedition and treason. He and his brother Procopio were sentenced to death and executed on May 10, 1897.

The Battle of Kakarong de Sili

The battle took place on January 1, 1897, in Pandi, Bulacan. It was a significant fight where over 3,000 Katipuneros died defending their "Republic of Real de Kakarong de Sili," one of the first revolutionary republics.

Kakarong Republic

The Kakarong Republic was established in late 1896 in Pandi, Bulacan. It had its own officials, military forces, and facilities. The fort was attacked and destroyed on January 1, 1897, by Spanish forces.

Biak-na-Bato

After several defeats, Aguinaldo and his men retreated to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan, establishing the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. Peace negotiations with Spain led to the Pact of Biak-na-Bato on December 14–15, 1897. This pact called for the surrender of weapons, amnesty for rebels, exile of revolutionary leaders, and payment by Spain to the revolutionaries.

Second Phase of the revolution

Not all revolutionary leaders agreed to the pact. Some continued fighting, and armed conflicts resumed across the Philippines. In exile, Aguinaldo and his group arrived in Hong Kong with funds provided by Spain.

Spanish–American War

The Spanish–American War began due to issues in Cuba and the sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine. The U.S. declared war on Spain in April 1898. Commodore George Dewey led the U.S. Asiatic Squadron to the Philippines and won a decisive victory in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898.

Preparation for land-based operations and Aguinaldo's return

Dewey's victory prompted the U.S. to plan the capture of Manila. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines from Hong Kong on May 19, 1898, and resumed revolutionary activities against the Spanish. He issued a proclamation assuming command of all Philippine forces and announced plans to establish a dictatorial government.

In the Battle of Alapan on May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo’s forces liberated Cavite, and the modern Philippine flag was unfurled in victory. Many towns and provinces were liberated from Spanish control.

Declaration of Independence

By June 1898, most of Luzon was under Filipino control. Aguinaldo proclaimed Philippine independence on June 12, 1898, in Cavite El Viejo. The Philippine flag was raised, and the national anthem was played. Aguinaldo later established a revolutionary government.

Capture of Manila

U.S. and Filipino forces controlled most of the Philippines except Manila. A secret agreement was made for a mock battle where Spanish forces would surrender to the U.S., but Filipino forces would not enter the city. On August 13, 1898, U.S. forces captured Manila, but some Filipino forces attacked independently, leading to confrontations. The U.S. insisted Filipino forces withdraw from Manila.

U.S. military government

On August 14, 1898, the U.S. established a military government in the Philippines. An American-style school system, courts, and local governments were introduced. The U.S. military governed until July 1902 when a civil governor-general took over.

Spanish–American War ends

The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, ended the Spanish–American War and ceded the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. Spanish rule in the Philippines ended on December 25, 1898, when Spanish forces surrendered Iloilo to Filipino revolutionaries.

First Philippine Republic

Elections were held between June and September 10, 1898, leading to the Malolos Congress. The assembly drafted the Malolos Constitution, which was approved and signed by Emilio Aguinaldo on January 21, 1899. The First Philippine Republic was established with Aguinaldo as president.

Philippine–American War

Hostilities between Filipino and American forces began on February 4, 1899, when an American sentry shot a Filipino soldier, leading to a return of fire. The Philippines declared war against the United States on June 2, 1899. The conflict continued until 1902 when the U.S. proclaimed an amnesty for participants.

End of the revolution

The Philippine Revolution came to an end when Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by American forces on March 23, 1901. Even though some fighting still happened in a few places, Aguinaldo agreed to support the United States. On April 19, he announced that peace was very important for the Philippines. In response, the U.S. president offered forgiveness to everyone who had fought against American control of the Philippines.

Death toll

The Correlates of War project estimates that both sides had more than 2000 deaths in battle and many more from sickness.