Pipeline

A pipeline is a system of pipes used to move liquids or gases over long distances, usually to places where they are needed. These pipelines form a huge network all around the world. By 2025, the total length of these pipelines is expected to be about 2.19 million kilometers, with most of them in North America. The United States has the largest share, followed by Russia and Canada.

Many different things can travel through pipelines. These include oil, natural gas, biofuels, water, sewage, and even beer! Pipelines help bring clean water for drinking and irrigation, especially when moving it over hills or where other methods like canals are not practical.

Oil pipelines are usually made from steel or plastic tubes and are often buried underground. Pump stations help move the oil along the pipeline. Natural gas pipelines are made from carbon steel and work by pressing the gas into liquids. Pipelines are considered one of the safest ways to transport materials compared to using roads or trains. However, because they carry important resources, pipelines can sometimes become targets during conflicts.

Oil and natural gas

See also: List of oil pipelines and List of natural gas pipelines

The first crude oil pipeline was built in the 1860s. It was a small pipe that carried oil from a field in Pennsylvania to a railroad station in Oil Creek. Some important early pipelines were built under the sea across the English Channel in 1944. These helped supply fuel for wars.

Pipelines are usually the cheapest way to move large amounts of oil, refined oil products, or natural gas over land. For example, moving oil by pipeline costs less than moving it by train or truck. In the United States, most oil and petroleum products travel by pipeline. In Canada, almost all natural gas and petroleum products move this way too.

Natural gas can be turned into liquids that are easier to move. Small processing places near oil fields can change natural gas into liquids that can be shipped by train, truck, or pipeline. Propane, a type of natural gas liquid, can be used to heat things in oil fields or fuel vehicles.

Many oil companies in places like North Dakota separate natural gas liquids right at the oil field. This lets them sell propane directly, skipping big refineries. A major pipeline started in 2012 brings natural gas from Pennsylvania into Canada, providing a big part of Ontario's natural gas.

This new pipeline from the United States replaced gas that used to come from western Canada, saving money on shipping costs. Many oil producers in North Dakota send oil north to Canada to reach more markets and get better prices. In 2012, the United States also started selling propane to Europe because the price there is higher.

As more pipelines are built in North America, more natural gas products are exported from the United States. North Dakota’s oil production grew a lot between 2007 and 2015. While trains can move oil to different markets, pipelines are still the cheapest way for moving large amounts.

Enbridge in Canada plans to change an old pipeline to carry oil from west to east. This will bring more oil to refineries in several states and provinces.

Although pipelines can be built under the sea, it is harder and more expensive, so most oil at sea is moved by ships. Natural gas is sometimes moved as a special liquid form, but whether this or a pipeline is cheaper depends on how much gas there is and how far it needs to go.

Growth of market

The market for building oil and gas pipelines grew a lot before 2008. After a slow time in 2009, building more pipelines started again as energy production increased. By 2012, thousands of miles of new pipelines were being planned or built in North America.

Construction and operation

Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes. They are usually buried a few feet in the ground to keep them safe. Special methods are used to protect the pipes from damage and rust.

Crude oil can get waxy in cold weather, so special devices called “pigs” are used to clean and check the pipes. These devices travel through the pipeline and can remove wax or find problems like dents or cracks.

Natural gas pipelines are made from strong steel and come in different sizes. The gas is pushed along by compressor stations. Sometimes a smelly chemical is added so people can notice gas leaks.

Ammonia

The Togliattiazot affair is discussed in more detail in another article.

Until it was damaged during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Russian–Ukrainian Transammiak line was the longest ammonia pipeline in the world, stretching 2,500 km. It linked the TogliattiAzot facility in Russia to the port of Odesa in Ukraine, which is on the Black Sea.

Alcohol fuels

See also: Biobutanol

Pipelines can carry ethanol in places like Brazil, and there are plans for more ethanol pipelines in Brazil and the United States. However, moving ethanol through pipelines is tricky because it can corrode the pipes and absorb water and impurities, unlike oil and natural gas. Also, there isn’t always enough ethanol to make building these pipelines worthwhile, and it can be expensive. In the United States, only small amounts of ethanol travel by pipeline; most is moved by train, truck, or barge. While pipelines would be the best way to deliver ethanol, they need special treatment because ethanol easily mixes with water and can dissolve certain materials.

Coal and ore

Slurry pipelines can carry coal or ore from mines. The material is mixed with water before it goes into the pipeline, and it must be dried when it reaches the end. One example is a planned 525-kilometre pipeline to move iron ore from the Minas-Rio mine to the Port of Açu in Brazil. Another example is the 85-kilometre Savage River Slurry pipeline in Tasmania, Australia, which was built in 1967.

Hydrogen

Main article: Hydrogen pipeline transport

Hydrogen pipeline transport moves hydrogen through pipes as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. It connects where hydrogen is made or delivered to where it is needed. Most hydrogen is made close to where it is used, but sometimes it travels up to 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km) from an industrial facility. The Rhine-Ruhr hydrogen pipeline, built in 1938 and stretching 240 kilometres (150 miles), is still working today. As of 2004, the US had 900 miles (1,400 km) of low-pressure hydrogen pipelines, and Europe had 930 miles (1,500 km).

In steel pipes, hydrogen gas can make small cracks grow faster and weaken the metal, so special materials are needed for hydrogen pipelines. Rules like ASME B31.12 help make sure the pipes are safe for carrying hydrogen.

Water

Main article: Water transportation

See also: Aqueduct (watercourse) and History of water supply and sanitation

Long ago, the ancient Romans built large structures called aqueducts to carry water from higher places to lower places. These helped bring water to many places in Europe. In China, people also used special pipes and channels to move water for important projects.

Today, pipelines are great for moving water over long distances, especially when it must go over hills or where other methods like canals aren't good choices. Some big water pipelines include one in Western Australia that was finished in 1903 and two in Los Angeles, California, finished in 1913 and 1970. There's also a very long pipeline in Libya that brings a lot of water every day to several cities.

Other systems

District heating

Main article: District heating

District heating systems use a network of special pipes to move warm water or steam to homes and buildings. Steam can be very hot and useful for some factory work, but it loses heat quickly while traveling, making it less efficient. These systems usually have storage to keep up with busy times. Heat moves into homes through special devices called heat exchangers, keeping the water or steam separate from the home's heating system.

Beer

Some places use special pipelines to move beer. A big sports stadium in Germany has a 5-kilometre-long beer pipeline connecting its bars. In Denmark, a city had a beer pipeline that started at a brewery and later used a large tank after the brewery moved. In Belgium, a new beer pipeline was built in 2016 to help keep traffic away from city streets.

Brine

The village of Hallstatt in Austria has an old pipeline made from hollow tree trunks. Built in 1595, it moved salty water over 40 kilometres to another town.

Milk

From 1978 to 1994, a special pipeline moved milk from an island in the Netherlands to the mainland. The pipeline was 15 kilometres long and went under the sea for part of the way. Every day, it carried 30,000 litres of milk for processing.

Pneumatic transport

Main article: Pneumatic tube

Pneumatic tubes use air pressure to move small solid items through a tube. They were popular a long time ago for moving things like papers in offices or money in banks. Today, most places use computers instead, but some places like hospitals still use them for quick delivery of medicines or samples.

Marine pipelines

Main article: Submarine pipeline

Sometimes, pipelines need to cross water, like small seas, straits, or rivers. When this happens, the pipelines lie on the seabed and are called marine pipelines. They are also known as submarine or offshore pipelines. These pipelines mainly carry oil or gas, but they can also move water.

In offshore projects, there are two types of pipelines: flowlines and export pipelines. Flowlines connect underwater wells, manifolds, and platforms within one area. Export pipelines bring the resources from the sea to the shore. Building and taking care of marine pipelines is tricky because of waves, currents, and other natural dangers under the water.

Functions

Pipelines come in three main types, each with a different job. Gathering pipelines are short and small, bringing oil or gas from nearby wells to a processing plant. Transportation pipelines are long and big, moving oil, gas, or other products between cities, countries, and even continents. They have special stations to keep the flow going. Distribution pipelines are smaller and take the products to homes, businesses, and storage places for everyday use.

Development and planning

When building a pipeline, there is a lot of work to do. This includes laying the pipes and setting up stations to keep the liquid or gas moving. The pipeline follows a specific path called a "right of way."

Building a pipeline has several steps. First, companies find out if people want to use it. Then, they choose the best path and get permission to use the land. Next, they design the pipeline, which might mean building a brand-new one or updating an old one. They also need approval from government groups to make sure the pipeline is safe and follows rules.

After the design is ready, workers survey the land, clear the path, and dig trenches. They then lay the pipes, add valves, and cover everything back up. Finally, they test the pipeline to make sure it is strong and safe to use.

Russia has special teams trained to build and fix pipelines. In the United States, government groups review pipeline projects to make sure they are safe for the environment and communities.

Operation

Pipelines have special devices placed along them to measure things like flow, pressure, and temperature. These devices send information to nearby units that collect the data and send it to a central control room using different types of communication, like satellites or cell phones.

In the control room, all the data comes together. Operators watch screens that show how the pipeline is doing and can send commands to open or close valves, turn equipment on or off, and more. Some companies use extra software tools to help find leaks, track batches of liquid, and train operators.

Technology

Pipeline networks use different parts that work together to move liquids or gases from one place to another. The main parts include:

• Initial injection station: This is where the product enters the pipeline. It often has storage areas and pumps or compressors.
• Compressor/pump stations: These help move the product through the pipeline. Pumps are used for liquids, and compressors are used for gases.
• Partial delivery station: These stations let the operator deliver some of the product along the way.
• Block valve station: These stations help protect the pipeline by allowing operators to close off parts of the line if needed.
• Regulator station: These stations reduce pressure in the pipeline, often located on downhill slopes.
• Final delivery station: This is where the product leaves the pipeline to reach consumers.

To keep pipelines safe, companies use different methods to detect leaks. They follow rules set by governments and face many challenges, like protecting the environment and preventing theft. One common way to monitor pipelines is called Computational Pipeline Monitoring (CPM). CPM uses information about pressure, flow, and temperature to spot any unusual changes that might mean there is a leak.

When a pipeline passes under a road or railway, it is often placed inside a protective tube called a casing. This casing has vents to let air out and prevent dangerous gases from building up. These vents also help workers check for leaks.

Implementation

Pipelines are usually placed underground because this helps keep the temperature steady. Since pipelines are made of metal, being underground helps them avoid expanding or shrinking with weather changes. Sometimes, pipelines need to cross a valley or a river using a special pipeline bridge. For heating systems, pipelines can be placed on the ground or above it. In places where the ground is frozen, like where the Trans-Alaska Pipeline runs, pipelines are often built above ground to prevent melting the frozen soil with hot liquids, which could cause the pipeline to sink.

Maintenance

Keeping pipelines safe involves checking special protection levels and watching for problems like construction damage, erosion, or leaks. Workers use their feet, cars, boats, or even airplanes to watch the pipelines. They also send special tools called cleaning pigs through the pipes to clean anything that might hurt them.

In the United States, rules for keeping natural gas and petroleum liquid pipelines safe are written in special government books called the Code of Federal Regulations.

Regulation

In the United States, pipelines that carry oil and gas are watched over by groups like the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. Some pipelines out at sea are looked after by the Minerals Management Service. In Canada, different areas have their own rules, but if a pipeline goes between areas or into the United States, the National Energy Board steps in to help.

Both Canada and the United States have rules that say underground fuel pipelines need to be safe from rust. One common way to keep them safe is to cover them with a special layer and use other technology to watch over them. When pipelines are above ground, the special layer is the main way to keep them protected.

Pipelines and geopolitics

Pipelines that carry important energy resources like petroleum and natural gas are more than just trade tools. They also affect geopolitics and international security. Where these pipelines are built, placed, and controlled often matters a lot to states.

One well-known example happened in early 2009. A disagreement between Russia and Ukraine about prices turned into a big political problem. Russia’s state-owned gas company Gazprom stopped sending natural gas to Ukraine when talks with the Ukrainian government failed. This also stopped gas to parts of Southeastern Europe, Central Europe, and Western Europe, causing trouble in countries that relied on Russian gas. Some people thought Russia was using this situation to stop other powerful countries, especially the European Union, from getting involved in areas close to Russia, called its "near abroad".

Hazard identification

Pipelines can sometimes have leaks, which can be dangerous. When oil spills from above-ground pipelines, it often turns into vapor quickly, leaving behind thick oil that moves slowly. This makes it easier to clean up before it spreads far.

However, if a buried pipeline leaks, the spilled oil and chemicals like benzene can mix with rainwater and seep into the ground water we use for drinking. Benzene is harmful and can cause serious health problems.

It is easier to check above-ground pipelines for leaks because any spilled oil is easy to see. Buried pipelines are harder to monitor because small leaks can go unnoticed. Some pipeline builders do not always put strong monitoring systems in place, making it harder to catch leaks early. Buried pipes are safer in some ways because they are protected from weather, animals, and accidents.

Exposure

Earlier studies have shown that the worst possible situation for exposure can be limited to certain conditions. Thanks to advanced detection methods and quick shutdown procedures developed by TransCanada, the chance of a large spill contaminating groundwater with benzene is very low. Systems that monitor pressure and flow every five seconds help detect and stop leaks quickly. This means that any benzene exposure would mostly come from very small leaks that go unnoticed for a long time.

Benzene is a type of chemical that can mix easily with water and evaporate quickly. It is not fully known how temperature and depth affect benzene, but it is believed that benzene in oil would mix with water before evaporating. Even in the worst case, only small amounts of benzene are expected to reach groundwater. While some water could become affected, detailed studies have not been done to measure exactly how much.

Accidents and dangers

Pipelines can be important for a country's economy, but they can also be targets during wars or by people who want to cause harm. Moving fuels by pipeline can be safer than using trucks or trains, as pipelines usually cause less harm to people and property.

Pipelines that carry flammable materials like natural gas or oil can be dangerous. Problems can happen because of damage to the pipes, mistakes in operating them, or even when people dig near pipelines without checking first.