Political spectrum

A political spectrum is a way to organize and show different political ideas and positions. These ideas are placed on one or more lines, called axes, which help us see how they are related to each other. We often hear the terms political compass or political map when talking about the political spectrum, especially when using simple two-line models.

The most common way to look at politics uses a left–right line. This idea started a long time ago in the French parliament after the Revolution (1789–1799). People with very new and big change ideas, like communism and socialism, are usually on the left. Those who want to keep many old traditions, like conservatism and reactionism, are usually on the right. Some ideas, like liberalism/liberalism/liberalism, can be on either side depending on the situation. People in the middle are called centrists or moderates.

Many political scientists think that just one left–right line is too simple to describe all the different political beliefs. They often use two lines together: one for economic ideas (like left–right) and another for social ideas (like authority–liberty). This helps show more of the rich variety in political thinking.

Historical origin of the terms

The words "right" and "left" come from the time of the French Revolution in 1789–1799. They started from how people sat in the meeting places of France. The rich and powerful sat on the right side, and ordinary people sat on the left side. This is why we now call some groups "right-wing" and others "left-wing."

At first, the big difference was about the old way of running the country, called the Ancien Régime. The "Right" stood for supporting kings, rich families, and the church. The "Left" stood for ideas like equality for all, not mixing religion with government, and freedom for everyone.

Academic investigation

For almost a century, experts have studied how to best describe different political views.

In 1950, Leonard W. Ferguson looked at political values using ten different scales. These scales measured opinions on topics like birth control, capital punishment, censorship, communism, evolution, law, patriotism, belief in God, how criminals are treated, and war. By analyzing the results, he found three main groups: belief in God and negative views on evolution and birth control; opposition to war, harsh treatment of criminals, and capital punishment; and opinions on censorship, law, patriotism, and communism.

Soon after, Hans Eysenck began studying political attitudes in the United Kingdom. He believed there was a similarity between the views of fascists and communists, even though they seemed opposite. Eysenck collected political statements and asked people to agree or disagree with them. By analyzing the responses, he found two main factors: one related to traditional left-right politics, and another that showed a range of views from more peaceful and equal to more military and strict.

Later, Milton Rokeach created his own model based on the ideas of freedom and equality. He suggested that the main difference between left and right was how much they valued equality. Rokeach’s research, like Eysenck’s, showed similarities and differences between various political groups.

More recent studies have suggested there may be many more dimensions to political opinions, especially in places like the United States and the United Kingdom.

Other double-axis models

Greenberg and Jonas: left–right, ideological rigidity

In a 2003 paper, Jeff Greenberg and Eva Jonas suggested a model with two axes. The first is the usual left-to-right line. The second axis shows how strict or unchanging a person's beliefs are. People with very strict beliefs often like strong leaders, prefer their own group, and support strong control by police and military. They may feel this helps reduce fear and uncertainty.

Inglehart: traditionalist–secular and self expressionist–survivalist

The Economist talked about a chart made by Ronald Inglehart. This chart uses two axes to show cultural ideas. One axis deals with tradition and religion, like patriotism and obeying authority. The other axis deals with self-expression, like accepting diversity and new ideas. This chart can show the values of people in different countries.

Pournelle: liberty–control, irrationalism–rationalism

Jerry Pournelle created a two-axis model in 1963. One axis shows liberty, with people on the left wanting freedom from control and those on the right supporting state authority. The other axis shows rationalism, with people higher up believing problems can be solved through planning, and those lower down being more skeptical of such plans.

Mitchell: Eight Ways to Run the Country

In 2006, Brian Patrick Mitchell described four main political traditions based on their views of force and rank. He placed these traditions on a chart with one axis showing the use of force and the other showing recognition of rank. This helps show how different political ideas are related.

Nolan: economic freedom, personal freedom

The Nolan Chart, made by David Nolan, shows two axes. The horizontal axis shows economic freedom, like taxation and free trade. The vertical axis shows personal freedom, like drug legalization and abortion. This chart helps people see where their political views fit.

Three Telos Model

The "Three Telos Model," also called the "Political Trichotomy" or "Ideological Triangle," is a way to understand political ideas by looking at three main goals: Freedom, Equality, and Tradition. These goals are shown on a triangle map instead of a straight line, because focusing more on one goal means there is less focus on the others.

This idea goes back a long time. Writers like Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville talked about the balance between freedom, equality, and tradition. In the middle of the last century, Friedrich Hayek suggested using a triangle to show these three ideas better. Today, people still use this triangle to explain different political views, especially those that don’t fit into just left or right.

Spatial model

See also: Issue voting and Models of issue voting

The spatial model of voting shows how people and political choices can be placed in a space where each direction stands for a different political idea or feature. In this model, each person has an "ideal point" — a spot that shows what they believe — and they tend to choose the closest candidate to that point. These directions can also include things like how honest a candidate seems.

Many other ways to look at political views can be thought of as simpler views of this big, many-sided space. For instance, studying voters in Germany showed that at least four different directions were needed to capture all the political groups. The way voters and politicians line up in these directions can be asymmetric.

Other proposed dimensions

In 1998, a writer named Virginia Postrel suggested a way to look at political ideas by thinking about views of the future. She talked about two groups: those who worry about the future and want to control it, and those who let the future happen naturally.

Other ways to think about political ideas include:

• Focus on people or groups: Some care more about the whole group, while others care more about the individual.
• How to solve problems: Some believe in talking, some in negotiating, and some in using force.
• Role of beliefs: Some think beliefs should have a big role, while others think they should not.
• City or country life: In some places, this is an important way to see politics.
• Foreign policy: Some think a country should get involved in other countries' affairs, while others think it should stay out.
• Working with other countries: Some think countries should work together, while others think each country should make its own decisions.
• Using force: Some believe in not using force for political ideas, while others think force can be necessary.
• Trading with other countries: Some think markets should work together, while others think each country should be independent.
• Different cultures: Some think a country should have many cultures, while others think it should have one main culture.
• How people make decisions: Some think everyone should decide together, while others think only a few wise people should decide.
• Freedom: Some think rights mean others must help you, while others think rights mean others should not stop you.
• How much control there should be: Some think there should be a lot of control, while others think there should be none at all.
• How fast change should happen: Some want quick change, some want slow change, and some want to go back to the past.
• Where power comes from: Some think people create the government, while others think the government has power all by itself.
• How much power different areas should have: Some think all areas should be equal, while others think some areas should have more power.
• How open a country should be: Some think it should be open to new ideas and trade, while others think it should protect its own traditions.
• Private property: Some think private property should be very protected, while others have different views.
• What is most important: Some think the country is most important, some think all the people together are most important, and some think certain individuals are most important.
• Technology: Some think we should keep improving technology, while others think we should slow down or go back to simpler ways.

Political spectrum–based forecasts

Political spectra can help predict future events. A scholar named Stepan S. Sulakshin found that when the range of political views is just right, countries develop better. If the range is too small or too large, problems can happen. He also showed that in the short term, the political views shape how things change, not the other way around.

Biological variables

Main article: Biology and political orientation

Some studies suggest that our biology can be connected to our political views. However, many of these studies are still being debated, and more research is needed.

Research has shown that people with conservative views might have larger areas in their brains called amygdalae and may feel stronger reactions to things that seem unpleasant. People with liberal views often have more grey matter in a part of the brain called the anterior cingulate cortex, which helps them handle confusing or conflicting information better. For example, a study from the University of California, Los Angeles and New York University found that liberals made fewer mistakes when sorting cards with letters.

Conservatives often show stronger reactions to scary or threatening images and may see unsure faces as more dangerous. They also tend to report having more friends, feeling happier, and having higher self-esteem. Liberals may experience more emotional challenges, feel less satisfied in relationships, and are often more open to new experiences and uncertain situations.

Genetic factors also seem to play a role in shaping political views. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, humans may have developed ways to judge their chances in conflicts over things like the redistribution of wealth, which can influence their political beliefs.