Politics and Islam

Politics and Islam is about how the religion of Islam connects with governing and leading people. Islam has special ideas about how leaders should rule and how people should follow. These ideas come from important Islamic texts like the Quran, stories about the prophet Muhammad called ḥadīth, and his way of life called sunnah. After Muhammad, his followers, called rāshidūn caliphs in Sunnī Islam or Imams in Shīʿa Islam, continued these traditions.

In the early days, Muhammad was not only a religious leader but also a ruler, which made religion and politics closely linked in Islam. This is different from some other religions where leaders separate religious and political matters. Islamic political ideas teach that leaders must follow Islamic law (sharīʿa), be fair, and listen to advice from their people.

In more recent times, changes like the end of large Islamic empires and conflicts with Western powers have led many Muslims to feel unhappy with their leaders. This has made movements that try to bring back strong Islamic values in politics more popular. Events such as wars, revolutions, and the end of big political systems have influenced how Muslims think about politics and religion today.

Pre-modern Islam

The political aspects of Islam come from its religious texts, such as the Quran and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad. After Muhammad's time, his successors, known as caliphs, led the Islamic community. Traditional Islamic political ideas are based on Muhammad's leadership and his early successors.

Islam developed as a religion and a state early on, with Muhammad becoming both a spiritual and political leader. The Quran, Islam's holy book, includes guidance on justice, community, and leadership, though it does not describe a detailed political system. Over time, Islamic leaders expanded the empire through diplomacy and military campaigns, spreading their influence widely.

Islamic political thought emphasizes the importance of leadership through consultation and justice. Early Islamic leaders were chosen by community consensus, reflecting a model of collective decision-making. The role of religious scholars, known as ulama, was also significant in guiding Islamic governance, ensuring that laws and practices aligned with religious teachings. This blend of religious and political leadership shaped the development of Islamic states throughout history.

Modern era

From the 16th to the 20th centuries, the Muslim world experienced the impact of European colonialism, marking a new era. Unlike earlier conquerors such as the Byzantine Greeks and Sasanian Persians, European powers like Britain, France, and Russia showed little interest in converting to Islam or adopting Muslim customs.

Early modern empires (15th–16th centuries)

Between 1453 and 1526, three major Muslim empires emerged: the Ottoman in the Mediterranean, the Safavid in Iran, and the Mughal in South Asia. Known as the Gunpowder empires, they used firearms like cannons and small arms to expand their rule. By the early 17th century, these empires controlled areas from the Balkans and North Africa to the Bay of Bengal, with populations estimated between 130 and 160 million.

These empires often worked closely with religious leaders. Ottoman rulers, for example, followed Islamic judges and claimed the title of caliph. The Safavid ruler established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the official religion, while the Mughal dynasty ruled over a mostly Hindu population with tolerance for other faiths.

Ottoman expansionism and imperialism

Islam expanded rapidly after its founding, becoming an empire within a century, stretching from the Pyrenees Mountains to the borders of the Chinese Empire and Medieval India. The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries, capturing Constantinople in 1453 and establishing Islam as the state religion. The Ottomans continued to expand into Southeastern Europe, conquering parts of the Serbian, Bulgarian, and Byzantine Empires.

European kingdoms started diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire during the 15th and 16th centuries to build friendly ties.

Ottoman and Muslim decline

By the 17th century, the fear of Ottoman expansion in Europe diminished. The Ottoman Empire began to decline after the Battle of Vienna in 1683 and the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Once a powerful Muslim state, the Ottomans were seen as weaker by European nations. Over the next centuries, they lost most of their European territories and eventually collapsed in 1922.

Other Muslim empires, like the Mughal Empire in India, also faced decline. European powers annexed or occupied much of the Middle East, and the First World War led to the defeat and breakup of the Ottoman Empire.

Reaction to European colonialism

Muslims responded to European colonialism in two main ways. Some sought to fight back using modern methods, while others focused on returning to traditional Islamic practices. Leaders like Abd al-Qadir in Algeria and Muhammad Ahmad in Sudan called for jihad and formed alliances to resist European rule.

Another response was adopting Western political and social ways. Urban elites in places like Egypt, Iran, and Turkey promoted Westernization, though this often faced challenges and criticism.

Pan-Islamism

Pan-Islamism, the idea of unity among Muslims, was promoted by Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the late 19th century to prevent secession and support the fading Ottoman state. Leaders like Jamal al-Din Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and Sayyid Rashid Rida worked to unite Muslims against European imperialism.

Early movement leaders

Jamal al-Din Afghani traveled the Muslim world urging unity against British rule in colonial India. Muhammad Abduh, an Egyptian scholar, promoted returning to Islam's original principles and greater unity among Muslims. Muhammad Rashid Rida called for a unified Islam led by Arabs and the revival of early Islamic traditions.

Caliph claimants

After World War I and the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate in 1924, several leaders claimed the title of caliph, including Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz, and King Fuad of Egypt.

Hussein bin Ali

Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif and Emir of Mecca, proclaimed himself King of the Hejaz and led the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire with British support. He claimed to be a direct descendant of Muhammad. However, his pan-Arab goals were not supported by the Allies, and he eventually surrendered to Ibn Saud in 1925, ending the Kingdom of Hejaz.

Political Islam movement leaders

After the Ottoman Empire's defeat and the abolition of the Caliphate, many Muslims felt their religion's political power was declining. Concerns about Western influence growing in Muslim societies led to resentment. Movements like the Muslim Brotherhood emerged to resist British colonial efforts and oppose Western cultural influence.

Leaders like Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, and Abul A'la Maududi emphasized the importance of sharia law and criticized imitation of foreign ideas, including Western democracy.

Competition with nationalism and the political left

In the 20th century, ideologies like patriotism, liberalism, fascism, and communism influenced the Muslim world. Arab nationalism, which emphasized creating socialist, secular states based on Arab identity, became prominent but faced challenges like economic stagnation and military defeats.

By the 1990s, many in the Muslim world turned to Islam as an alternative to failing secular ideologies.

Shīʿa—Sunnī differences

Guardianship of the Jurist of Shi'i Islam

After the 1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution, Shi'a Islam shifted strongly towards political activism. The new regime in Iran was based on the principle of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist, where Islamic jurists govern in the absence of the Imam.

Shīʿa—Sunnī disputes

Following the Iranian Revolution, political differences between Shi'a and Sunni Islam became more pronounced. Sunni fundamentalism focused on Islamicizing existing political systems, while Shi'a Iran pursued revolutionary ideas and export of its ideology.

Contemporary movements

Political currents in Islam today include Sunni Traditionalism, Fundamentalist reformism, Salafi jihadism, Islamism, and Liberalism and progressivism within Islam. Only Liberal/progressive movements and Islamism involve political action.

20th and 21st centuries

Disempowerment of Islamic jurists

In recent decades, traditional Islamic institutions that upheld Islamic law have been weakened. Modern Muslim states have taken over the roles once held by Islamic scholars, leading to a decline in their influence.

Role of shura

Modern interpretations of shura, or consultation, vary. Some Islamist authors see it as a way for rulers to consult with the elite within divine laws, while others view it as a key part of Islamic democracy. Today, many Islamist and Islamic democratic parties exist alongside extremist groups in Muslim-majority countries.