Revisionist school of Islamic studies

The revisionist school of Islamic studies is a group of scholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in new ways. They ask questions about the stories that many Muslims and most non-Muslim scholars have believed for a long time. These stories tell how Islam started, but the revisionists think we should look more closely at the sources.

In the early 1970s, some scholars who were not Muslims started this movement. They thought the old stories about Islam’s beginning might not be completely reliable. These stories were written many years after the time of Muhammad, and the writers might have added their own ideas or made things more exciting. The revisionists suggested using a careful way of studying these old writings. They also looked at things like old buildings, writings from other places, and coins to find more evidence.

These scholars, such as John Wansbrough, Patricia Crone, and Michael Cook, had different ideas but shared some common beliefs. They thought that Muhammad might not have come from the place Mecca as the traditional story says. They also believed that the early relationship between Muslims, Jews, and Christians might have been friendlier than usually told. They suggested that what we call Islam today developed over a longer time, not just during Muhammad’s life. This included the time of the early leaders called Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphs. They also thought the change from the old empires of Persia and Byzantium to the new Arab empire happened more slowly than the traditional story says. Some revisionists even debate whether Muhammad really existed and how the Quran was first written and shared.

Main theses

Scholars called "revisionists" think the early stories about Islam need new research. They want to check these stories carefully, like scientists do with any evidence.

Questions about using traditional religious narratives as historical sources

Revisionists believe religious books, like the Quran and hadith, are not the best way to learn about history. These books were written to strengthen faith, not to tell exactly what happened. They sometimes tell exciting stories of heroes and include amazing events that might not be true.

These books were written many years after the events they describe. Stories told from memory can change over time, either by mistake or on purpose. Sometimes the stories even contradict each other. For example, one story might say something happened in one place or time, while another story says it happened somewhere else or at a different time.

Nature of early Islam

Revisionists think Islam began not in the places we usually hear about, but farther north, near big empires. They also think that at first, Islam included both Arabs and Jews. Over time, the stories about Islam changed to focus more on Arabs.

Consolidation of religious authority

At first, leaders ruled and guided religion at the same time. Later, special religious teachers became separate from rulers and took over spiritual guidance.

Expansion of Islam

Revisionists think when Arabs expanded their lands, it was more about growing their empire than spreading a religion. At first, they did not force others to change their beliefs.

Reshaped identity of early Islam

After the time of Muhammad, two important periods helped shape what Islam became. The first was under leaders called Umayyads, who helped create a special Arab Islamic story. The second was under Abbasid leaders, who wrote many books about Islam's beginnings to support their own rule.

Influence of conquered peoples

Some scholars think the laws of Islam were shaped by the traditions of the lands the Arabs conquered, not just by the teachings of Muhammad. Many of the early teachers of Islam came from groups like Zoroastrians and Jews, who were good at writing and studying before they joined Islam.

Origins and methodology

In the 1970s, some scholars who studied Islam began to question the traditional stories about how Islam started. Before this, most scholars, even those who were not Muslim, accepted these stories, except for parts about miracles. These new scholars, called revisionists, looked at old writings and other evidence in new ways.

They used methods like checking old writings very carefully and studying old buildings and coins. They believed these methods gave more reliable information than the old stories, which were written many years after the time of Muhammad. They thought the real history of early Islam needed to be studied again using these new approaches.

Major representatives

Some important thinkers who questioned old stories about how Islam began include John Wansbrough, Patricia Crone, Michael Cook, Yehuda D. Nevo, and Fred M. Donner. Their work started at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. Two books by Wansbrough, Quranic Studies (1977) and The Sectarian Milieu (1978), were key to this movement.

Other scholars, like Andrew Rippin, Norman Calder, and G. R. Hawting, learned from Wansbrough. In 1977, Crone and Cook published Hagarism, suggesting that Islam grew after the Arab conquests, not before. Later, they thought some ideas in that book went too far but still questioned old views of Islamic history. Other scholars, such as Martin Hinds and Robert G. Hoyland, also studied these topics.

In Germany, scholars like Günter Lüling and Gerd-Rüdiger Puin looked closely at the history of the Quran. More recently, others have wondered if Muhammad might be a legendary figure rather than a real historical person.

Tom Holland wrote a popular book, In the Shadow of the Sword (2012), that shared these new ideas with many people.

Publications

Scholarly

Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (1977)

In their book Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, Patricia Crone and Michael Cook looked at old clues from archaeological finds and documents written in many languages like Arabic, Armenian, Coptic, Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, Latin, and Syriac. They told a story about Arab groups moving into lands ruled by the Byzantine and Persian empires in the 600s. These people were called "Hagarenes" by those they conquered, not Muslims. The authors suggest these Arab groups worked with Jews and believed in a Jewish idea about a future leader, instead of following a new religion right away. They say the Qur'an was created later, in the 700s, from many different old writings.

Patricia Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (1987)

In Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, Patricia Crone explains why Mecca probably wasn’t a big trading city during the time of Muhammad. She says Mecca wasn’t on the main land trade routes, and those routes weren’t as important as sea routes anyway. Trade from Mecca mostly included simple goods like leather and clothes, not expensive items. Crone also points out that writings from other cultures who watched Arab trade don’t mention Mecca or Muhammad’s tribe, the Quraysh. Because of this, she thinks stories about Muhammad being a trader in Mecca might not be true, and that his life may have taken place in a different part of Arabia.

Hans Jansen, De Historische Mohammed (2005/2007)

Hans Jansen summarized many questions about the old stories of how Islam began in his work De Historische Mohammed. He noted that the Qur'an often hints at events without clearly describing them. Because of this, later guesses about when and why certain parts of the Qur'an were revealed became important for understanding it. Jansen explained that these unclear and later traditions have limited how people can interpret the Qur'an.

Non-scholarly

Ibn Warraq, a writer who questions traditional views about Islam, collected several essays about studying Islam in his book The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Fred Donner, who reviewed the book, said that because the author focused only on one group of thinkers, the book might confuse readers who don’t know about other ideas.

Robert B. Spencer, another writer who questions common views about Islam, wrote a book for general readers titled Did Muhammad Exist?.

Heyday of the revisionist school

Some scholars started to question the usual stories about how Islam began in the early 1970s. They were called "revisionists" by others who did not agree with them. Over time, as more people became interested in learning about Islam, many scholars chose to stick with the traditional stories instead of these new ideas.

Criticism of revisionism

When some historians began to look closely at the early stories of Islam, they faced strong opposition. Books like Hagarism by Patricia Crone and Michael Cook in 1977 caused many debates. Over time, even these authors moved away from some of their bold ideas.

Other scholars, such as Tilman Nagel, pointed out that some of these new ideas were guesses without strong proof. Yet, they did agree that it was good to use careful historical methods to study these stories. As more people began to listen to these new ideas, critics started talking about "extreme revisionism" to show they thought some ideas went too far.

Gregor Schoeler wrote about these early discussions. He felt the ideas were sometimes too strong, but he appreciated that they made people think in new ways.

François de Blois, a teacher at a university in London, argued against using certain historical methods on Islamic texts. He believed these methods were created for studying Christian texts and might not fit well with Islamic ones.