Schools of Islamic theology

Schools of Islamic theology are different ways that people who follow Islam think about important beliefs. These ideas are called "creed," and talking about them is known as theological discourse. There are several main groups with their own ideas. Some of these groups, like the Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools, still exist today. Others, like the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji', and Batini schools, are no longer around.

The big split between the main branches of Islam—Sunni, Shia, and Khariji—started because of political reasons. But over time, they also developed different theological ideas. Understanding these schools helps us see how people in Islam think about big questions and beliefs.

Divinity schools in Islamic theology

Main articles: Aqidah and Islamic schools and branches

Islamic theology has many different schools of thought about what Muslims believe. These schools discuss important ideas such as the nature of God, free will, and how we understand the holy book, the Quran. Some of the main schools that still exist today are the Mu'tazili, Ash'ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools. There were also schools in the past like the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji', and Batini, but they are no longer around.

The big split between Sunni, Shia, and Khariji Muslims started as a political disagreement about who should lead the Muslim community after the prophet Muhammad passed away. Over time, theological differences also developed between these groups. Each school of thought has its own way of understanding and explaining religious beliefs.

Sunnī schools of theology

Main article: Sunni Islam

Most Sunni scholars follow the Ash‘ariyya school of theology, but the Mātūrīd’iyyah school is also very important. Sunni Muslims are the largest group within Islam and are often called 'Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h' or simply 'Ahl as-Sunnah'. The word Sunni comes from Sunnah, meaning the teachings and actions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. So, being Sunni means following the Sunnah of Muhammad.

Sunni Muslims believe that Muhammad did not choose a successor before he passed away. After some time, his close friends chose Abu Bakr as the first leader, or 'Caliph', of Islam. Sunni Muslims respect the first four caliphs — Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abu Talib — as “The Rightly Guided Caliphs”. After these leaders, the role of caliph became more about showing unity rather than active leadership.

Athari

Main article: Athari

Further information: Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Dawud al-Zahiri, Al-Tabari, Al-Tahawi, and Ibn Taymiyya

Athari is a group of Islamic scholars who focus on the exact words of the Quran without using too much reasoning. They believe the clear messages from the Quran and traditions of Muhammad are enough to guide belief. Using too much logic in religious matters is not encouraged. Early Athari scholars like Amir al-Sha'bi thought careful reasoning could lead to wrong ideas about what is right or wrong.

ʿIlm al-Kalām

Main article: Ilm al-Kalam

ʿIlm al-Kalām is a way of studying Islamic beliefs using reason and logic, along with the teachings from the Quran. Scholars who study this are called mutakallim. One big question in this area is whether the words of the Quran are part of God itself or were created like normal speech.

Ashʿarīyyah

Main article: Ash'ari

Further information: Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari, Al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ibn Khaldun, and Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani

The Ash‘arīyyah school began with Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī. He created a balance between strict reading of scriptures and using reason to understand beliefs. He taught that God creates everything, including every moment and every small action, but people are still responsible for their choices. This school became very important in Sunni Islam.

Mātūrīd’iyyah

Main article: Maturidi

Further information: Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi, Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi, Abu Hafs Umar al-Nasafi, and Jalal al-Din Rumi

The Maturidi school started with Abu Mansur al-Maturidi. It is very popular, especially in areas once ruled by the Ottomans and Mughals. The Maturidi school thinks that while revelation is important, people can also use reason to understand some moral issues, like knowing that murder or stealing is wrong. However, they still believe revelation is needed for deeper spiritual truths.

Muʿtazila

Main article: Muʿtazila

Further information: Wasil Ibn 'Ata', Ibrahim al-Nazzam, Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad, Al-Jahiz, and Al-Zamakhshari

The Muʿtazila is a school of thought in early Islamic history. They were known for staying neutral in disagreements after the third leader of Islam, Uthman, passed away. By the 10th century, the term also described a group focused on studying theology in cities like Basra and Baghdad.

The Muʿtazila believed in the unity and fairness of God. They also thought people had free will and that the Quran was created, which was different from many other groups at the time. Their ideas were influenced by ancient Greek thinking, but they always started with the basic beliefs of Islam.

Jahmiyyah

Main article: Jahmites

Jahmis followed an Islamic thinker named Jahm bin Safwan, who was connected to Al-Harith ibn Surayj. Jahm believed in a strong idea called determinism. This means he thought people’s actions were like the sun setting — things happen, but people don’t really choose them.

Qadariyyah

Main article: Qadariyyah

Qadariyyah was an early group of Islamic thinkers who believed that people have free will. They thought that humans can choose to do good or bad, and that God only punishes people for their own choices. This idea was later supported by the Mu'tazilis but rejected by the Ash'aris. Another group, the Maturidi school, tried to balance these ideas by saying that God gives people freedom but can change it if needed.

Hasan al Basri was the first to clearly explain these beliefs. He taught that God only creates good things, and that evil comes from human choices. He also believed that people can decide whether to follow God or not. The group also thought that the devil (Iblīs) chose to be bad on his own, not because God made him that way. One of Hasan's students, Amr ibn Ubayd, became an important leader in a movement called the Mutazilites, still holding these beliefs about free will.

Muhakkima

Main article: Muhakkima

The Muhakkima were a group that broke away from Ali's army after a disagreement called the Arbitration Incident. They split into two main groups: the Kharijites and the Ibadis.

Main article: Khawarij

The Kharijites believed that some early leaders did not follow the right path. They thought that when there is a fight, it should be solved through battle, not talks. They had strong opinions about who should lead and what it means to follow the rules.

Main article: Ibadi

The Ibadiyya share some ideas with other Islamic groups like the Ashʿarī, Mu'tazila, and Sunni Islam, as well as some Shīʿīte beliefs.

Murji'ah

Main article: Murji'ah

Murji'ah (Arabic: المرجئة) was an early group within Islam. They appeared to answer questions about how bad actions might change someone's faith. The Murji'ah believed that doing wrong things did not change whether someone was a true believer, but it did affect their goodness. They taught that only God could decide if someone was a true believer, and that even people who made big mistakes could still be considered believers if they said the basic words of faith. Over time, many later Islamic groups agreed with this idea.

Shīʿa schools of theology

Main articles: Shi'ites, Imamah (Shia doctrine), and Shia Islamic beliefs and practices

The Zaydi group in Shīʿa Islam is quite similar to the Muʿtazila school in their beliefs. They differ mainly in their views about the Imamate, which the Muʿtazilites do not accept. Among Shīʿa groups, Zaydis are closest to Sunnīs because they share many beliefs and practices with Sunnī scholars.

The Bāṭen’iyyah began with Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-Asadī and was later expanded by Maymūn al-Qaddāh and his son ʿAbd Allāh ibn Maymūn. It focuses on understanding the deeper meanings of the Quran and includes both Ismāʿīlī and Twelver Shīʿa followers.

The Ismāʿīlīs believe in having living guides called imams or da'is. They follow Isma'il ibn Jafar as the rightful leader after his father Ja'far al-Sadiq. They think Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl al-Maktum was the next imam after Isma'il.

Followers of the Bāṭen’iyyah-Twelver school include Alevis and Nusayris. They have their own legal system and make up about 1% of all Muslims worldwide.

Alevis are sometimes seen as part of Twelver Shīʿīsm or as their own tradition. They believe in the Quran and the Twelve Imams but do not practice polygamy and honor older traditions like Turkic shamanism. They are mainly found in East-Central Turkey.

In Turkey, Shīʿa Muslims follow the Ja'fari legal system, tracing back to the sixth Shia Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, and are called "Ja'faris".

Twelvers believe in twelve Shīʿa Imams. The twelfth Imam is thought to be hidden and will return before the end of time. Twelver Shīʿas are the largest Shīʿa group and live mainly in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain, with significant populations in Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.

Followers of the Ja'fari system are called Ja'fari and follow its principles. Most Twelver Shīas are Ja'fari.

Shaykhism began in the early 19th century in Iran and mixes Sufi, Shia, and Akhbari ideas. Many Shaykhis later became Bábí or Baháʼí.

Alawites, also known as Nusayris, follow their own legal system and beliefs. They see themselves as Muslims but have unique ideas that include elements from other religions. Their beliefs are often kept private due to past persecution.

Qizilbash and Bektashi groups share beliefs and practices, forming the Alevi community. They developed their own traditions away from Sunni Ottomans and Twelver Shīʿa Safavids.

Tashbih

Main articles: Tashbih and Anthropopathy

Karram’iyyah

Main article: Karramiyya

The Karram’iyyah group believed that God has a body. They thought God could touch a special chair in heaven.

Further information: Anthropomorphism

Anthropopathy in the history of Ghulāt Shīʿīsm

Main articles: Anthropopathism and Anthropotheism

Some groups long ago believed that a person could become like God. This idea appeared first in a group called the Sabaʾiyya. Later, leaders such as Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, Abu Muslim, Sunpadh, Ishaq al-Turk, Al-Muqanna, Babak Khorramdin, Maziar, and Ismail I were seen by some as God made human.

Further information: Ghulāt, List of extinct Shia sects, Kaysanites Shia, and Khurramites

Ahmadiyya

The Ahmadis follow beliefs similar to Sunni traditions, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. They accept the Qur'an as their holy book, face the Kaaba during prayer, and respect the Hadiths and Sunnah of Muhammad.

Ahmadi teachings say that the founders of major world religions received guidance from God. They believe Islam is the final and most complete religion, with Muhammad as its last prophet. They see Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a special leader who came to renew faith and bring people back to Islam.