Second Triumvirate

The Second Triumvirate was a special group of three leaders in ancient Rome who had great power to rule. It was created in 43 BC for Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. They were given the authority to make laws, punish people without normal trials, and control different parts of the Roman world.

This group formed after a fight between Mark Antony and the Roman senate. Their job was to bring back control for followers of Julius Caesar and to fight against those who had assassinated Julius Caesar. After a hard civil war, they defeated their enemies at the Battle of Philippi.

At first, Lepidus was given control of Africa, while Antony took charge of the eastern areas and Octavian the western ones. Later, Octavian removed Lepidus from the group and fought a final war against Antony, winning and becoming the sole ruler.

Name

The name "Second Triumvirate" is a term used today to describe an important group of leaders in ancient Rome. It came from an earlier group called the "First Triumvirate." People in the past did not use these names, and they only started being used during the Renaissance period. Some modern books avoid using "First" and "Second Triumvirate" because these names can be confusing. The Oxford Classical Dictionary says these names are modern and can mislead people.

Triumviral period

Following the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, a settlement was made between those who opposed Caesar and his supporters. This included pardoning Caesar’s opponents and confirming his actions.

Mark Antony, one of the leaders, took control of certain regions, which gave him power over important areas. However, tensions grew between Antony and Octavian, Caesar’s heir. Eventually, they joined forces with Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC. This group was given special powers to rule Rome for five years, allowing them to make laws and control the Roman world without usual checks.

The triumvirs faced many challenges, including wars against those who opposed them and managing the needs of their soldiers. They worked to secure their power and control over Rome’s many regions.

Breakdown

As the group of three leaders shrank to just two, Octavian prepared for a final confrontation with Antony. He tried to connect Antony with Cleopatra and trained his soldiers near the border of their lands. Meanwhile, Antony was busy dealing with issues far away in the east.

Octavian’s soldiers grew tired and wanted to go home, but he found ways to keep them ready for battle. He offered rewards and promised future gains. He also sent his sister Octavia to negotiate with Antony, creating tension between the two leaders.

In 34 BC, Antony made some unpopular decisions that Octavian used against him. Antony captured a king from a nearby land and paraded him through a city, which upset many Romans. He also made ceremonies that seemed to favor foreign customs over Roman traditions, further alienating public opinion.

The legal term of their powerful agreement ended in 33 BC. Tensions rose as Octavian forced out leaders who opposed him. Antony moved his large army toward Greece, but faced tough choices about whether to keep Cleopatra involved. Eventually, Antony left his Roman wife and stayed with Cleopatra, which further angered many Romans.

In 31 BC, a major sea battle took place at Actium. Despite a planned escape, most of Antony’s fleet turned back. Over the next year, more of Antony’s supporters switched sides to Octavian. By 30 BC, Octavian marched into Egypt. After negotiations failed, he captured Alexandria. Antony and Cleopatra faced a tragic end, while Octavian took control of Egypt.

Legacy

In formation of the Principate

Further information: Reign of Augustus

After the Second Triumvirate ended, Octavian made changes that led to the start of the Principate and the Roman empire. Even though the triumvirate was not meant to last forever, it changed Rome greatly. Writers like Tacitus later thought that the end of the Roman Republic began with the triumvirs' victory at Philippi. The long and tough fights after Julius Caesar's death made it hard to fix the republic.

The triumvirs tried to look like they were following old Roman rules, even though they had a lot of power. Over time, Octavian let the regular leaders of Rome, like the consuls, keep some of their jobs. The triumvirs still used the old ways of making laws, promising to give their power back to the senate and people, but they never did.

In Roman culture

The busy and unsure times of the triumvirate helped many new people become important. Many famous books and poems were written then, such as Horace's Epodes and Satires, Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics, and histories by Sallust and Asinius Pollio. The fight between Octavian and Antony inspired Octavian's friend, Gaius Maecenas, to help support artists.

Virgil's Eclogues showed the worries of people living in the countryside when lands were taken for veterans after Philippi. Stories about people trying to escape during tough times were also popular, especially tales about Cicero.

Timeline

The following years are taken from the narrative in Pelling 1996.