Suez Crisis

The Suez Crisis was a big event that happened in 1956. It started when Israel, the United Kingdom, and France decided to invade Egypt. Their main reason was to take control of the Suez Canal, which Egypt's leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser, had taken over earlier that year. They also wanted to make sure Israel could safely travel through nearby waters that Egypt had been blocking.

After the invasion began, the three countries faced strong opposition from other powerful nations, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations. This pressure eventually led to them pulling their forces out of Egypt.

The Suez Crisis showed that the United Kingdom and France could no longer act independently without the approval of the United States. It also made Egypt’s leader, Nasser, more respected, while the British and French felt embarrassed. Because of this conflict, the United Nations created a special group to help keep peace between Egypt and Israel. For his work in helping to solve the crisis, a Canadian minister named Lester B. Pearson won a Nobel Peace Prize.

Background

The Suez Canal before 1945

See also: Suez Canal and Convention of Constantinople

The Suez Canal opened in 1869, with help from French and Egyptian money. It was run by a company partly owned by Egypt, but the land around it stayed Egyptian.

The canal was very important because it was the shortest way for ships to go between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.

In 1875, Egypt sold part of its company shares to the British government because it owed money. By 1882, after Britain invaded and took control of Egypt, Britain also controlled the canal, its money, and its operations.

The 1888 Convention of Constantinople said the canal should be a neutral place protected by Britain. In exchange, the Ottoman Empire agreed ships from all countries could use it during war or peace.

Even with this agreement, Britain sometimes closed the canal. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, Britain stopped the Russian Baltic Fleet from using it after a sea fight near Dogger Bank, making them sail around Africa instead. During the First World War, Britain and France closed the canal to ships not from their allies.

1945–1952

In the years after the Second World War, Britain kept a big military base at Suez. It was very important for Britain’s position in the Middle East, but it also caused problems between Britain and Egypt.

The canal stayed important for oil shipments after the war. Western Europe got a lot of its oil from the Middle East, and many ships passed through the canal.

Egypt’s government was changing a lot during this time. There were new political groups like the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, and people were unhappy with Britain and its control. Also, Britain had helped create the country of Israel, which made many Egyptians angry.

In October 1951, Egypt said it would not follow the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 anymore. This treaty let Britain keep troops at the Suez base for 20 more years. Britain said it would not leave, which made things worse between the two countries.

The Egyptian Revolution

Main article: Egyptian revolution of 1952

In January 1952, British soldiers tried to take weapons away from a police station in Ismailia. This led to fights where 41 Egyptians died. After this, there were big protests in Cairo against Western influence. These protests helped lead to the end of Egypt’s king.

On 23 July 1952, a group of Egyptian officers called the ‘Free Officers Movement’—led by Muhammad Neguib and Gamal Abdul Nasser—took over in a quick takeover. They removed King Farouk. After a short time with a young king, they ended the monarchy and made Egypt a republic led by Fuad II and later the Republic of Egypt.

After the 1952 Egyptian Revolution

Egypt and the United States

Main article: Egypt–United States relations § 1950s and 1960s

The United States wanted to be friends with both Britain and France, who were former colonial powers, and with leaders in other countries who did not like British and French control.

The United States was worried the Soviet Union might get more power in the Middle East, so it tried to help create a defense group called the Middle East Defense Organization (MEDO). The United States tried to give money to Egypt if it would join this group, but Egypt’s leader, Nasser, took the money but did not join.

Nasser wanted the United States to give Egypt a lot of weapons, but it was hard for the United States to agree because of Israel.

Egypt and Britain

Britain tried to improve its relationship with Egypt after the 1952 revolution. In October 1954, Britain and Egypt agreed that Britain would slowly leave its big base at Suez. Britain would take all its soldiers out within 20 months, keep the base, and be allowed to bring soldiers back for seven years. The company that ran the Suez Company would go back to Egypt in 1968.

The Baghdad Pact

Main article: Central Treaty Organization

Nasser thought Egypt should be the most important country in the Arab world. He did not like Western plans for defense in the Middle East. Nasser did not trust Iraq’s leader, Nuri al-Said, and wanted to be the leader of the Arab countries.

In 1955, a group of countries including Britain, Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan formed the Baghdad Pact. Nasser thought this was Britain trying to control Arab countries. Around the same time, Israel attacked the Gaza Strip in response to attacks from people living near the border. Nasser thought these events were part of a plan to make him join the Baghdad Pact, which made him lose trust in the United States.

Nasser also worked more with Saudi Arabia to stop Britain from influencing countries like Syria, Jordan and Lebanon.

Egypt and the Communist World

See also: Egyptian–Czechoslovak arms deal

Nasser first asked to buy weapons from the Soviet Union in 1954 to pressure the United States into selling him weapons. He tried to get help from both the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1955, Egypt secretly bought a lot of weapons from the Soviet Union through Czechoslovakia. This worried Western countries because it showed the Soviet Union was getting more powerful in the Middle East.

Egypt and Israel

Before 1955, Nasser tried to make peace with Israel and stop attacks from people living near the border. But after Israel attacked an Egyptian military base in the Gaza Strip in February 1955, Nasser started letting people attack Israel from bases in Gaza, Jordan and Lebanon. These attacks led to Israel fighting back.

Israel wanted to take control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai area and control the Gulf of Aqaba.

Israel was worried because Egypt was buying a lot of new, powerful weapons from the Soviet Union. This changed the balance of power, and Israel thought it had to act fast before Egypt got even stronger. Israel also thought Egypt had secret plans with Jordan and Syria.

Egypt and France

See also: Algerian War

France and Israel worked together against Egypt because Egypt supported groups fighting for independence in Algeria. By 1955, France was sending many weapons to Israel. By 1956, France agreed to send even more weapons to Israel. In 1956, an Israeli leader told France that Israel had decided to go to war with Egypt because he thought Nasser wanted to destroy Israel and its people. Israel wanted to fight before Egypt got more weapons from the Soviet Union.

Egyptian policies in 1956

In early 1956, leaders from Egypt and Israel tried to make peace with help from the United States. But they couldn’t agree, and the talks didn’t work.

Later, Egypt’s leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported protests in Amman. This upset the British leader, Anthony Eden, who became very angry with Nasser. Also, when Egypt recognized the People's Republic of China, it further upset the United States, which then stopped funding for a big dam project in Egypt called the Aswan Dam.

Nationalisation of the Suez Canal

See also: Closure of the Suez Canal (1956–1957)

In July 1956, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser announced that Egypt would take control of the Suez Canal. This surprised many countries, especially Britain and France, who had used the canal for their trade and military movements. Egypt also closed the canal to ships from Israel and blocked a nearby waterway, which caused tension.

Britain felt this action threatened their influence and economy. Leaders in Britain, France, and later Israel decided to work together to take back control of the canal. This decision led to a conflict known as the Suez Crisis, involving military actions by these countries against Egypt. The situation showed the growing independence of Egypt and the changing power dynamics in the world.

Diplomatic solutions

After Egypt took control of the Suez Canal, leaders from many countries met in London to discuss what to do. The United States wanted as many countries as possible to join, hoping this would help everyone agree. Most countries supported the idea that the canal should be run by many nations together, but some, like India, thought Egypt should still own it.

The United States suggested a group of canal users to make rules for how the canal would work. Many countries agreed, but the United States did not want to use force to solve the problem. They believed everyone needed to try peaceful ways first. However, Britain and France thought they needed to act faster and kept planning for a possible military move.

Military preparations

British Prime Minister Anthony Eden began planning for an invasion of Egypt in July 1956. His plan involved troops from Cyprus taking control of an important area near the Suez Canal. However, other military leaders suggested a different plan using sea power and troops landing at a city called Port Said.

As planning continued, the British and French worked together and decided to focus on capturing Port Said instead of a larger city, Alexandria. They also planned for bombing to weaken Egypt's economy. This operation needed many troops, so France agreed to help provide soldiers.

Meanwhile, France also made secret plans with Israel. In late September 1956, France asked Israel to join in attacking Egypt. Israel agreed and began preparing its own military operation called Operation Kadesh. The Israeli plan was to gain control of the air and quickly move through a desert area to capture key locations, hoping this would help British and French forces in their goals.

Protocol of Sèvres

Main article: Protocol of Sèvres

In 1956, leaders from France, Israel, and the United Kingdom secretly met in a place called Sèvres to plan their actions. They wanted to take control of an important waterway called the Suez Canal, which belonged to Egypt. Their plan was for Israel to start fighting with Egypt first. Then, Britain and France would tell both countries to stop fighting and move back. If Egypt did not agree, Britain and France would also start fighting. This secret meeting helped set the stage for a bigger conflict known as the Suez Crisis.

Forces

The British forces included the 16th Independent Parachute Brigade Group, which focused more on counter-insurgency operations than traditional paratroop training. The Royal Navy had powerful ships and aircraft, but lacked the right tools for landing operations. The Royal Air Force had new long-range bombers like the Vickers Valiant and the English Electric Canberra, but had not yet mastered how to use them effectively in combat.

French paratroopers were very experienced soldiers. The main French tank, the AMX-13, was designed for quick, mobile attacks. The French Navy had strong aircraft carriers but also lacked proper landing ships. The Israel Defense Forces were considered very skilled but had some weaknesses in planning and supplies. Their main tank was also the AMX-13, and their aircraft included the Dassault Mystère IVA and the Ouragan. The Egyptian military relied on weapons from the Soviet Union, such as T-34 tanks and MiG-15 fighters, but faced challenges in leadership and coordination between officers and soldiers.

Operation Kadesh

Main article: Operation Kadesh

The fighting began on 29 October 1956 when Israeli forces attacked Egyptian positions in the Sinai. Initially, Egyptian leaders did not fully understand the scale of the invasion. Over the next few days, Israeli troops moved quickly through the Sinai, capturing key locations.

During the conflict, there were many battles between Israeli and Egyptian forces. Some of these fights led to the sad loss of lives on both sides. The area around the Gulf of Aqaba and the city of Rafah were important targets. As the fighting continued, many people, including civilians, sadly lost their lives in different parts of the region. The exact numbers of those affected are still discussed today.

Anglo-French Canal invasion

The Anglo-French military action had two parts: Operation Musketeer and Operation Telescope.

Operation Musketeer Revise had two phases. First, Anglo-French air forces aimed to control the skies over Egypt. Second, they planned to attack the Egyptian economy from the air for ten days.

To support the invasion, Britain and France moved large air forces to bases in Cyprus and Malta, and many aircraft carriers were used. Operation Telescope involved landing forces by air and sea to capture the Suez Canal area.

On 30 October, Britain and France sent demands to Egypt and Israel. Later that day, they began bombing Egypt. Egyptian forces in the Sinai were told to stay in place, but later were ordered to move back toward the canal.

On 5 November, British and French paratroopers landed near Port Said. They faced strong resistance but managed to take key points in the city. Fighting continued as more forces landed, and the city suffered heavy damage.

The conflict ended when a United Nations ceasefire was accepted.

Responses to military action

Many people in Britain had mixed feelings about the war in Egypt. Some supported the government, while others opposed it. Public opinion changed over time, with more people eventually against the war. There were protests, and debates in government became very heated.

Other countries also had strong reactions. The United States was concerned about the conflict and put pressure on Britain to stop the fighting. Some countries, like West Germany, supported Britain and France, while others, especially in the Muslim world, were very upset. Protests and rallies happened in many places, showing support for Egypt or opposition to the invasion. The United Nations tried to help by calling for a ceasefire and setting up a peace force to keep things calm.

Ceasefire

Anthony Eden announced a stop to fighting on 6 November, but did not tell France or Israel beforehand. Troops were still in Port Said and preparing for more action. Port Said had already been taken, and military leaders thought they could fully control the Suez Canal within a day.

The United States did not want the British, French, and Israeli troops to leave right away. Finally, by 22 December 1956, these troops had to leave and were replaced by soldiers from Denmark and Colombia as part of a United Nations group. Israel did not want United Nations forces on their land, so they left the areas they had taken by March 1957. Before leaving, they damaged roads, railways, and telephone lines, and took equipment from Egyptian railways to use in Israel. By 24 April 1957, the Suez Canal was open for ships to pass again.

Main article: Suez Crisis

Aftermath

The conflict ended with Egypt keeping control of the Suez Canal. Although the fighting ended in a military win for the countries that invaded, it was a political win for Egypt.

Israel felt stronger after the fighting and reopened a key water passage that had been closed to them. The country also secured the help of United Nations peacekeepers in the area. The Soviet Union gained respect in the Middle East by threatening to use powerful weapons if the fighting did not stop. The United States helped end the fighting and later tried to prevent other countries from taking over the area. In Europe, the fighting showed that some countries needed to rely on their own strength for protection. Canada helped create a new way for peacekeepers to work, which changed how the country saw itself.