Viceroyalty of Peru

The Viceroyalty of Peru (Spanish: Virreinato del Perú), officially known as the Kingdom of Peru (Spanish: Reino del Perú), was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in South America, governed from the capital of Lima. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, Peru was one of the only two Spanish viceroyalties active in the Americas, the other being the Viceroyalty of New Spain.

The Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The creation during the 18th century of the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Río de la Plata (at the expense of Peru's territory) reduced the importance of Lima and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Eventually, the viceroyalty dissolved, as with much of the Spanish Empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the modern-day country of Peru, as well as Chile, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina, the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.

History

Conquest of Peru

Main article: Spanish conquest of Peru

After the Spanish conquest of Peru, Charles V gave the conquerors special rights, allowing them to govern and make laws in the areas they had claimed. Before the Viceroyalty of Peru was created, several large regions were already under Spanish control.

Exploration and settlement (1542–1643)

In 1542, the Spanish organized their holdings into the Viceroyalty of Peru to better manage their lands in South America. The first viceroy arrived in 1544, and later leaders worked to strengthen the region. They built forts, improved trade, and brought new rules to govern both locals and settlers.

The last Spanish Habsburgs (1643–1713)

During this time, Peru faced attacks from pirates and had to protect its coastlines. Leaders built walls and strengthened defenses. There were also uprisings by local people and challenges from nature, such as earthquakes.

The Bourbon Reforms (1713–1806)

Main article: Bourbon Reforms

In the early 1700s, changes were made to improve how Peru was governed. New regions were added and removed, and leaders focused on trade, mining, and building up the economy. Earthquakes caused damage, and there were ongoing tensions with local populations.

End of the Viceroyalty (1806–1824)

See also: Peruvian War of Independence

In the early 1800s, Peru became a key place in the fight for independence from Spain. Leaders worked to bring freedom to the region, facing strong Spanish forces. Battles were fought, and eventually, Peru won its independence, marking the end of Spanish rule.

Politics

The town of Lima, founded in 1535, became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. As the main city for the Spanish in South America, Lima grew very important. During the 16th, 17th, and most of the 18th centuries, much of the wealth from South American silver mines passed through Lima on its way to Spain.

The viceroyalty was divided into smaller areas called audiencias, which were mainly courts but also had some administrative roles. These areas were further split into smaller groups called provinces, each led by a governor. Some areas faced military threats and were grouped into captaincies, like Chile. Over time, new administrative changes were made, introducing officials called intendants who had broad powers.

Economy

The economy of the Viceroyalty of Peru was mainly based on silver mining. Large amounts of silver were sent to Europe, which greatly changed the prices there. Silver was mined using different kinds of workers, including people who were paid and others who worked under an old system called the mita.

Gold and silver from the Andes made Peru very rich and powerful. The first coins made in South America appeared in Peru between 1568 and 1570. Some of this silver was used to pay for armies and build forts, and it was also traded with local people, creating special traditions. Over time, the Spanish allowed people in Peru to buy important jobs, which sometimes led to problems with corruption and less effective government.

Main article: Price revolution

Demographics

When the Spanish arrived in Peru, they found about 12 million people living there. However, many people died from diseases like smallpox that they had never encountered before. By the time the Spanish had been there for a while, the population had dropped to around 1.1 million.

The Spanish changed many Inca cities, giving them new names and building them in their own style with a central plaza and a church. Some cities, like Cusco, kept parts of the original Inca stonework. The Spanish also allowed some Inca nobles to keep special titles if they could prove their ancestry. The first official count of people in Peru was done in the 1790s.

Culture

See also: Culture of Peru, Cuzco School, Andean Baroque, and Peruvian Viceroyal architecture

During the time of the Viceroyalty of Peru, many important cultural advances took place. Leaders like Viceroy Francisco de Borja y Aragón helped improve education by reorganizing the University of San Marcos and creating new teaching positions. New schools were also started, such as the Naval Academy and the Botanic Garden of Lima.

Artists and writers thrived during this period. The first books and theater in Peru were created, and literary meetings were held in Lima. Important figures like the artist Diego Quispe Tito and the saint Rose of Lima became well known. These cultural developments helped shape the history and identity of Peru.

Science

In 1737, Spanish scientists Jorge Juan y Santacilia and Antonio de Ulloa arrived in Peru. They were sent by the French Academy to measure the Earth near the equator and also to report on problems in the government. Their findings were later published.

Later, from 1777 to 1788, another group studied the plants of Peru and Chile. Their work helped improve farming and trade in the area. Other scientists from France also contributed to science in Peru during this time.