Welsh mythology

Welsh mythology, also called Y Chwedlau meaning 'the legends', is a rich collection of stories and traditions from Wales. These tales come from both the people of Wales and the ancient Celtic Britons who lived there long ago. Like many oral societies, the stories of Celtic mythology and history were shared by special storytellers known as druids, called derwyddon in Welsh.

Over time, these oral stories changed because of outside influences and invasions. Many of these changed myths and histories are saved in mediaeval Welsh manuscripts. Important books include the Red Book of Hergest, the White Book of Rhydderch, the Book of Aneirin, and the Book of Taliesin. Other works related to Welsh myths are the ninth-century Latin book Historia Brittonum and a 12th-century Latin chronicle called Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Later, Welsh folklore was collected in books such as The Welsh Fairy Book by William Jenkyn Thomas in 1908.

Cosmogony and creation

Like other Celtic peoples, the Welsh people had rich stories about how the world began, but these stories were not written down. Instead, they were told by special storytellers called druids, who passed them on by word of mouth. Because they were not written, many of these stories have been lost or changed over time.

We can learn about these early beliefs by looking at names of gods and goddesses and old tales that survived. For example, the goddess Dôn may have been called "the earth" in an ancient language, showing she was an important mother figure. Some stories show a repeating pattern where a hero and a goddess come together, have a child, and then the cycle begins again. This idea of cycles might also connect to bigger changes in the world itself.

The Welsh believed in different realms, like the world of humans called Elfydd and another world called Annwn, where gods and spirits lived. This other world might have been thought of as deep parts of nature, like forests or lakes, rather than a place far away from the earth.

Legends

The Four Branches of the Mabinogi

Main article: Four Branches of the Mabinogi

Four important stories in Welsh mythology are known as the Four Branches of the Mabinogi. These tales focus on the adventures of ancient British leaders who were later turned into kings and heroes. The main character in all these stories is Pryderi fab Pwyll, the king of Dyfed. He is born in the first story, dies in the last, and is linked to the Celtic god Maponos. Other important characters include Pryderi's mother Rhiannon and her later husband, Manawydan. Manawydan is also connected to Brân the Blessed, Branwen, and Efnysien.

Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed

The first story explains how Pwyll, prince of Dyfed, spends a year with Arawn, the ruler of Annwn, the magical otherworld. Pwyll defeats Arawn's enemy Hafgan and returns to find Rhiannon, a beautiful lady whose horse he could not catch. He wins her love, though she was promised to another man, and they have a son who seems to disappear at birth. Rhiannon is punished, but the child is found and returned to them, and he grows up to be Pryderi.

Branwen ferch Llŷr

In the second story, Branwen, sister of Brân the Blessed, marries Matholwch, king of Ireland. Trouble starts when Branwen's brother Efnysien ruins Matholwch's horses, so Brân gives new horses and treasure as a peace offering. Matholwch mistreats Branwen, but she sends a message to her brother Brân, who gathers an army. A big battle happens, and only a few men survive, including Pryderi and Manawydan. Brân is badly hurt, so he asks to have his head brought back to Britain. Branwen dies of sadness at home, and five women survive to repopulate Ireland.

Manawydan fab Llŷr

Pryderi and Manawydan return to Dyfed, where Pryderi marries Cigfa and Manawydan marries Rhiannon. A mist covers the land, leaving it empty. They try hunting, then move to England and make saddles, shields, and shoes, but each time they are driven away by local workers. Back in Dyfed, they become hunters again. A white boar leads them to a strange castle where Pryderi and Rhiannon disappear. Later, Manawydan and Cigfa return to England but are driven away again. They plant three fields of wheat in Dyfed, but the crops are destroyed. Manawydan catches the leader of the mice destroying the last field and demands the return of Pryderi and Rhiannon and the end of the magic mist. The request is granted, and the land returns to normal.

Math fab Mathonwy

While Pryderi rules Dyfed, Gwynedd in north Wales is ruled by Math, son of Mathonwy. Math's feet must rest on a virgin's lap unless he is at war. His nephew Gilfaethwy loves Goewin, Math's current footholder, and his brother Gwydion tricks Math into going to war so Gilfaethwy can be with her. Gwydion kills Pryderi, and Gilfaethwy harms Goewin. Math marries Goewin to protect her and banishes Gwydion and Gilfaethwy, turning them into animals for three years before returning them to human form. Math then needs a new footholder and considers his sister, Arianrhod. When Math tests Arianrhod, she gives birth to two sons. One son, Dylan, goes to the sea right away. The other is raised by Gwydion, but Arianrhod refuses to name him or give him arms until Gwydion tricks her. She also says he will never have a wife, so Gwydion and Math create a wife for him from flowers named Blodeuwedd. Blodeuwedd falls in love with another man, Gronw Pebr, and they plan to harm Lleu. Lleu escapes and turns Blodeuwedd into an owl. Gronw tries to harm Lleu but is defeated.

Cad Goddeu

A big battle called the Battle of the Trees happened between the sons of Dôn and the forces of Annwn, the Welsh otherworld. Amaethon, one of Dôn's sons, takes a white roebuck and a whelp from Arawn, starting a great battle. Gwydion fights with his brother and Lleu, using magic to make trees and plants come to life as warriors. A warrior for Arawn can only be defeated if his name is known, and Gwydion figures out his name by looking at symbols on his shield.

Native tales

The Dream of Macsen Wledig

See also: Magnus Maximus

The story of Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, is different from other versions. Macsen dreams of a beautiful lady in a faraway land and sends men to find her. They find her in Britain, the daughter of a local leader. Macsen falls in love, and her father is given control of Britain. When a new emperor takes power, Macsen returns with help from British soldiers, recaptures Rome, and rewards his British friends with land that becomes Brittany.

Lludd and Llefelys

Main article: Lludd and Llefelys

The story of Lludd and Llefelys tells of Lludd, king of Britain, and his brother Llefelys, king of France. Lludd's kingdom faces three problems: magical people who can hear everything, a scary scream heard every May Eve, and food disappearing. Lludd asks Llefelys for help. Llefelys creates a potion to stop the magical people, finds out the scream comes from two fighting dragons, and stops a wizard who is stealing food.

Hanes Taliesin

Guest included Hanes Taliesin in her translation of the Mabinogion, though it is not found in old Welsh books and is considered a later story. Still, some parts of it are older. In the story, Taliesin starts as Gwion Bach, a servant to an enchantress named Ceridwen. Ceridwen wants to make a magic potion to help her ugly son, and Gwion stirs the potion. Three drops spill on him, giving him wisdom. He runs from Ceridwen, who chases him in different animal forms. Gwion turns into a grain of corn, but Ceridwen eats him as a hen. She becomes pregnant and gives birth to a child she throws into the ocean. The child is found and named Taliesin, meaning "radiant brow." He grows up to be a great poet.

Arthurian tales

Culhwch and Olwen

Main article: Culhwch and Olwen

Culhwch and Olwen is an Arthurian story where Culhwch seeks help from King Arthur to win the love of Olwen, daughter of a giant. The story includes many mythological characters and has conditions set by Culhwch's mother, similar to those in other tales.

Owain, or The Lady of the Fountain

Main article: Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain

The hero of Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain is based on the real person Owain mab Urien. The story is about a hero who marries a lady but loses her by neglecting his duties. With help from a lion he saved, he balances his marriage and duties and returns to his wife. The story is related to a French tale by Chrétien de Troyes.

Peredur son of Efrawg

Main article: Peredur son of Efrawg

This story is similar to Chrétien's Perceval, the Story of the Grail, though there are differences. Peredur's father dies when he is young, and his mother raises him in isolation. He meets knights and decides to join King Arthur's court. There, he faces insults and sets out on adventures. He meets his uncles, learns from them, and faces many challenges, including meeting the Nine Witches of Gloucester and a woman he loves. Peredur avenges his family and becomes a celebrated hero.

Geraint son of Erbin

Main article: Geraint and Enid

This story matches Chrétien's Erec and Enide. It is about Geraint, one of Arthur's knights, and his love Enid. After marrying, Geraint faces rumors that he has become weak. Enid worries she is causing this and tries to warn Geraint of dangers during their travels. They face several adventures together and are reunited happily at the end, with Geraint taking control of his father's kingdom.

Preiddeu Annwfn

Main article: Preiddeu Annwfn

The Spoils of Annwfn is an old poem found in the Book of Taliesin. It describes an expedition led by King Arthur into the Otherworld to get a magical cauldron. Arthur and his men travel to Annwfn, but only seven return. The poem talks about a prisoner in chains and a cauldron that will not cook food for cowards. The reason for the tragedy is not clearly explained, and the poem ends with criticism of monks and others who lack knowledge.

Characters

The Welsh people had been Christian for many years before their old stories were written down. Their gods became kings and heroes from the past. Many characters with god-like powers belong to two main families: the Plant Dôn ("Children of Dôn") and the Plant Llŷr ("Children of Llŷr").

Children of Dôn

Dôn, daughter of Mathonwy, started this family. Her husband’s name is not told.

• Gwydion: A clever magician and warrior. He appears in many stories.
• Arianrhod: Gwydion’s enemy and mother of Lleu.
• Eufydd fab Dôn: Not much is known about him.
• Gilfaethwy: Appears in tales, sometimes under another name.
• Gofannon: A skilled metalsmith, mentioned in many stories.
• Amaethon: Thought to be a god of farming.

Other figures in this family include:

• Math fab Mathonwy: Dôn’s brother and a wise king.
• Dylan ail Don: Arianrhod’s first son, connected to the sea.
• Lleu: Arianrhod’s second son, important in many tales.
• Blodeuwedd: A woman made from flowers, who later faces trouble.
• Gronw "the Radiant": A lord who worked with Blodeuwedd.

Children of Llŷr

Llŷr started the other family. He might come from Irish stories. His wife was Penarddun. Their children include:

• Brân the Blessed: A giant and king who helped his sister but was killed in battle.
• Manawydan: Brân’s brother, who helped his friends and later married Rhiannon.
• Branwen: Their daughter, whose troubles caused a big war.

Other figures in this family include:

• Euroswydd: Father of two more children.
• His sons Efnysien and Nisien: Efnysien caused much trouble, while Nisien was kind.
• Matholwch: King of Ireland, husband of Branwen.

Kingdom of Dyfed

• Pwyll: King of Dyfed, known for his friendship with another king.
• Rhiannon: Sometimes linked to a horse goddess.
• Pryderi: Pwyll and Rhiannon’s son, who faced many adventures.
• Cigfa: Wife of Pryderi.
• Teyrnon: A lord who helped raise Pryderi.

Family of Beli Mawr

Beli Mawr is an important ancestor in many stories. His children include:

• Arianrhod
• Caswallawn fab Beli: Took the throne during a battle.
• Lludd Llaw Eraint and Llefelys: Kings who helped their land.

Lludd’s children include:

• Gwyn ap Nudd: Ruler of a magical place, leading special hounds.
• Edern ap Nudd: A knight in many tales.
• Creiddylad: Involved in a long-standing contest.
• Owain ap Nudd: Mentioned in stories about King Arthur.

Others

• Arawn
• Ceridwen
• Mabon ap Modron
• Modron
• Taliesin
• Tegid Foel

Arthurian characters

• Ambrosius (Ambrosius Aurelianus)
• Arthur (King Arthur)
• Bedwyr (Bedivere)
• Cai (Sir Kay)
• Cadwr (Cador)
• Caradoc
• Culhwch
• Drystan (Tristan)
• Essyllt (Iseult)
• Geraint
• Gwalchmai (Gawain)
• Gwalchavad (Galahad)
• Gwenhwyfach
• Gwrtheyrn (Vortigern)
• Gwenhwyfar (Guinevere)
• Mabon ap Modron and Modron
• Macsen Wledig (Magnus Maximus)
• Medrawd
• Myrddin Emrys and Myrddin Wyllt (Merlin)
• Olwen
• Owain mab Urien (Ywain)
• Peredur (Percival)
• Urien
• Uther Pendragon

King Arthur

While stories about King Arthur became popular all over Europe, Wales has the earliest tales about him. Before Arthur became a well-known hero, stories about him were mostly told in Wales, as well as in Cornwall and Brittany. These early stories are split into two groups: those before the writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth and those inspired by him.

Pre-Galfridian texts

Some of the oldest mentions of Arthur include:

• Y Gododdin: A poem that mentions a warrior who "was no Arthur."
• Poems by Taliesin: These include Kadeir Teyrnon, which calls Arthur "the Blessed," and Preiddeu Annwn, which tells of Arthur's journey to another world.
• From The Black Book of Carmarthen: Pa gur yv y porthaur?, a dialogue where Arthur describes his adventures.
• The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen: This story, written around 1100, is part of the Mabinogion collection and features Arthur.
• The Welsh Triads: Short summaries of Welsh traditions where Arthur's court represents all of Britain.
• Historia Britonum: This book lists twelve battles led by Arthur, calling him a war leader.
• Annales Cambriae: This history book mentions Arthur in several events, including battles and a story about Merlin.

Geoffrey of Monmouth

Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote several important works about Arthur:

• Prophetiae Merlini: Geoffrey wrote stories about Merlin, presenting them as real prophecies.
• Historia Regum Britanniae: This book tells how Arthur became king after the Romans left Britain, fought off invaders, and ruled with peace and prosperity until his final battle.
• Vita Merlini: A poem by Geoffrey that mixes old Welsh stories about Merlin with other traditions.

Welsh Arthurian romance

Wales also created its own versions of Arthurian tales, which are part of the Mabinogion collection. These include stories like Owain, or The Lady of the Fountain, Peredur Son of Efrawg, and Gereint Son of Erbin. They were likely influenced by the works of Chrétien de Troyes.

Folklore

Mythical creatures

Welsh folklore includes many fascinating mythical creatures. Some of these are:

• Adar Llwch Gwin, giant birds that can understand human speech.
• Afanc, a monster that lives in lakes, though the exact lake changes in different stories.
• Bendith y Mamau, another name for the Tylwyth Teg or Welsh fairy folk, meaning Blessings of the Mothers (Mother Goddesses).
• Brenin Llwyd, a silent, ghostly figure found in mountains. This figure is often seen in mist and is said to wander lonely places.
• Bwbach (plural Bwbachod), a friendly house spirit similar to a brownie or hobgoblin. They like to help around the house but enjoy playful tricks. They appreciate a nightly bowl of cream and don’t like clergymen or teetotalers, whom they tease.
• Bwca, another brownie that does housework in exchange for bread and milk. If treated badly, Bwca can become angry, but if you learn his secret name, he will leave. One story tells of a Bwca who became sad when his human friend went off to war and was killed, leading him to play pranks until a magician helped send him away.
• Ceffyl Dŵr, a water horse much like the Kelpie.
• Cewri (Giants), such as Ysbaddaden Bencawr from Culhwch and Olwen, and Brân from the Four Branches of the Mabinogi.
• Coblynau, little people or mine spirits similar to the Knocker.
• Coraniaid, a mysterious group of beings who troubled the Island of Britain.
• Cŵn Annwn, special hunting dogs from another world.
• Cyhyraeth, a spirit linked with death.
• Y Diawl (The Devil), who is said to have built many bridges in Wales (including Devil's Bridge, Ceredigion). He sometimes appears to wrongdoers as a black shepherd with horns and dogs. He is also connected to a black sow named Yr Hwch Ddu Gwta.
• Dreigiau (Dragons), with the most famous being Y Ddraig Goch.
• Y Dyn Hysbys (The Wise Man), or wizard. These could be church leaders, men who studied medicine and magic in books, or those who claimed family powers to predict the future, especially on special spirit nights, and could create charms.
• Gwiddonod (Witches), older women who could cast spells, ride on broomsticks, tell the future, and heal or cause sickness. They could change into a hare and could only be stopped with a silver bullet. Only Y Dyn Hysbys could reverse their magic.
• Gwragedd Annwn, beautiful maidens of the lakes.
• Gwyllgi, a large black dog that roams dark roads.
• Gwyllion, mountain spirits who look like hags.
• Llamhigyn y Dŵr, a winged toad from lakes, also called a water leaper.
• Mallt-y-Nos, female spirits linked with the Wild Hunt.
• Morgens, spirits of the water.
• Plentyn Newid, the Welsh version of the Changeling creature.
• Pwca, a shapeshifting spirit animal.
• Tylwyth Teg, meaning "the Fair Folk," the common Welsh name for the fairy folk, who live in another world.
• Ysbrydion (spirits), more likely to appear to humans on special spirit nights, such as Calan Gaeaf and Calan Mai.

Folk narrative

Welsh folklore includes many folk tales, legends, traditions, and stories. The cyfarwyddiaid (singular: cyfarwydd, “storyteller”), were special members of the bardic order in Wales. The only known historical cyfarwydd is Bledri ap Cydifor ('Bledericus Walensis', 'Bleherus').

The cyfarwyddiaid were educated and had important duties. They were court officials trained in their art and often worked closely with their lords. Their jobs included praising, celebrating, and mourning their lords. They preserved and shared traditional stories, acted as historians, and protected the family histories of powerful families.

These tales were shared as proverbs, songs, and spoken stories. Historical and imaginative stories were told together, helping to teach culture and history through poetry. In the past, penceirddiaid told stories in noble courts. Later, the cyfarwyddiaid shared these stories with wider audiences.

Medieval Welsh storytelling followed certain rules and themes. It used poetic patterns, old verses, and knowledge of history to create well-crafted stories about the past. Stories were often told in short parts, making them easy to remember from oral tradition. Welsh tales were similar to Irish literature, both aiming to inform about the past rather than criticize ancestors. The tales mixed prose and poetry, like early Irish sagas. Irish bards were not storytellers; that role belonged to poets.

This kind of storytelling in Ireland and Wales was thought to come from spiritual inspiration. Poets spoke with great knowledge, sometimes believed to come from divination, called ái in Irish and awen in Welsh. The Welsh cyfarwyddiaid were called awenyddion, able to give prophetic speeches in a special state of awen. Many customs grew from these tales.

Folk tales and legends were also passed down by everyday people. Storytelling happened in many ways: through chatter, games, dancing, riddles, tongue-twisters, nursery rhymes, harp songs, folk songs, and ballads. Common times for storytelling were nosweithiau llawen (or “merry evenings,” like a céilidh), nosweithiau gwau (“knitting nights”), and Calan Gaeaf (Winter’s Eve).

Tales about animals with human characteristics

One famous group of stories is about the “Oldest Animals,” where a character meets different animals until finding the oldest. Culhwch and Olwen mentions the Blackbird of Cilgwri, the Stag of Rhedynfre, the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd, the Eagle of Gwernabwy, and the Salmon of Llyn Llyw. The Triad “The Three Elders of the World” lists several of the oldest birds.

Formula tales

These include cumulative tales and stories without end.

Humour about actual persons or types

This includes White Lie Tales, which are clearly made-up and funny. Common ideas involve a narrator’s adventures in America, flying on a huge bird’s wings, growing giant vegetables, amazing shooting skills, seeing far away, or buying a hare’s egg at Pwllheli Fair. Well-known recent authors in this style are James Wade (Shemi Wad), Daniel Thomas (Daniel y Pant), Gruffydd Jones (Y Deryn Mawr) and John Pritchard (Siôn Ceryn Bach).

(Pseudo-)histories of notable figures

• Arthur (see separate section above)
• Twm Siôn Cati, often called the Welsh Robin Hood
• The Lives of Saints, originally written in Latin. These stories focus on male saints’ early lives and female saints’ youth, virginity, and avoiding unwanted marriages or attacks. Examples include the Life of St. David by Rhygyfarch, and the Life of Cadog by Lifris of Llancarfan. The MSS Cotton Vespasian Axiv, written around 1200, collects many saints’ lives. Another important book is The Book of the Anchorite of Llanddewibrefi.

Local legends of historical or pseudo-historical figures

This includes Gwylliaid Cochion Mawddwy, a group of robbers who lived in Merioneth in the 16th century, mentioned in Thomas Pennant’s Tours of Wales and other sources.

Another well-known legend is about Gelert, the namesake of the town of Beddgelert (meaning "Gelert's Grave") in Gwynedd. The story is said to happen in the 13th century. It teaches a lesson about acting too quickly. In the tale, Llywelyn the Great, Prince of North Wales, returns from hunting to find his baby missing, the cradle tipped over, and his loyal dog Gelert with blood on his fur and teeth. Thinking the dog killed his child, Llywelyn kills Gelert. After the dog’s last cry, Llywelyn hears his baby’s cries, safe behind the cradle, and sees a dead wolf that attacked the baby, killed by Gelert. Llywelyn is filled with sadness and buries the dog, never smiling again.

Place-name or topography tales

These tales explain how places got their names. One example from the Historia Britonum shows that ‘Carn Cafal’ comes from a pile of stones marking the footprint of Arthur’s dog Cafal.

Collectors of folk tales

• Poet-scholars: Rhys Meurig (Rice Merrick), George Owen of Henllys.
• Antiquarians: Edward Lhuyd, the Morris Brothers of Anglesey, Iolo Morganwg.
• Folklorists: Daniel Silvan Evans (Y Brython, 1858), Peter Roberts (Cambrian Popular Antiquities, 1815), W. Howells (Cambrian Superstitions, 1831), Isaac Foulkes (Cymru Fu, 1862), Wirt Sikes (British Goblins, 1880), Daniel Silvan Evans, John Jones and others (Ysten Sioned), Elias Owen (Welsh Folklore, 1896), Marie Trevelyan (Folklore and Folk Stories of Wales, 1909), J. Ceredig Davies (Folk-Lore of West and Mid-Wales, 1911).

Voyage tales

• Preiddeu Annwfn, in which Arthur sails to Annwn (the Otherworld) to get a magic cauldron (perhaps an early version of the Grail).
• The Madoc legend, about a Welsh prince who supposedly discovered America in 1170.

Travelogue

Gerald of Wales wrote about Welsh mythology and folklore in his books Itinerarium Cambriae from 1191 and Descriptio Cambriae from 1194. These books share many stories and traditions from Wales.

National histories

Some old books tell stories about where the Welsh people came from. These books are called histories, but they also share myths that many Welsh people believe.

The books include Historia Britonum, Annales Cambriae, and the works of Geoffrey of Monmouth.

Legacy of Welsh mythology in English literature

Welsh myths have inspired many stories in English books. For example, tales about King Arthur are very popular. Writers like William Morris used stories from a collection called The Mabinogion in his plays. Another writer, John Cowper Powys, used these myths in his novels Owen Glendower and Porius.

Characters like Taliesin, Blodeuwedd, and Myrddin Wyllt also appear in books such as Thomas Love Peacock's The Misfortunes of Elphin and Porius: A Romance of the Dark Ages by John Cowper Powys. There are also stories about a character named Madoc.