Woolly mammoth

The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was an extinct species of mammoth that lived from the Middle Pleistocene until its extinction in the Holocene epoch. It was one of the last in a line of mammoth species, beginning with the African Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene. The woolly mammoth began to diverge from the steppe mammoth about 800,000 years ago in Siberia. Its closest living relative today is the Asian elephant. The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) lived alongside the woolly mammoth in North America, and DNA studies show that the two hybridised with each other.

The woolly mammoth was well adapted to cold environments during glacial periods, including the last ice age. It had fur, with long guard hairs and a shorter undercoat, and its ears and tail were short to prevent frostbite. It had long, curved tusks and used its trunk for manipulating objects, fighting, and foraging. The woolly mammoth mainly ate forbs and grasses.

Woolly mammoths lived alongside early humans, who hunted them for food and used their bones and tusks to make art, tools, and dwellings. The species gradually disappeared at the end of the Late Pleistocene, with the last populations on mainland Siberia dying out around 10,000 years ago. Smaller groups survived on St. Paul Island until 5,600 years ago and on Wrangel Island until 4,000 years ago. Today, scientists have completed the mammoth genome project, sparking discussions about the possibility of reviving the woolly mammoth, though such ideas remain theoretical.

Taxonomy

Remains of woolly mammoths were known to native Siberians and Native Americans, who had their own ways of understanding these ancient bones. Later, these remains were studied by scientists. The first scientist to examine woolly mammoth remains was British physician Hans Sloane in 1728. He recognized that these bones belonged to elephants but suggested they might have been buried during the Great Flood.

In 1796, French biologist Georges Cuvier identified woolly mammoths as a distinct species that had gone extinct. This idea was new at the time. The scientific name Mammuthus primigenius was given to the woolly mammoth in 1799. The word “mammoth” likely comes from an old Siberian word meaning “earth-horn.” By the early 20th century, scientists had many names for extinct elephants, but later research simplified this.

Evolution

Mammoths are part of a group of animals called proboscideans, which also includes modern elephants. The family Elephantidae, which includes today’s elephants and mammoths, appeared in Africa about 6 million years ago. The woolly mammoth diverged from the Asian elephant about 5 to 7 million years ago. Scientists have studied mammoth DNA and found that woolly mammoths and Asian elephants are very closely related.

Subspecies and hybridisation

Scientists have found many different kinds of mammoths and sometimes these kinds blended together, creating hybrids. For example, Columbian mammoths and woolly mammoths sometimes interbred, producing offspring with mixed traits. Studies of ancient mammoth DNA show that these two types mixed genes, especially in places where they lived close to each other. This mixing happened over many thousands of years.

Description

The woolly mammoth was a large elephant-like animal that lived during the ice age. Males could reach heights of about 3 meters (10 feet) at the shoulder and weigh between 4.5 and 6 tons, while females were smaller, similar in size to today’s elephants. Their bodies were well-adapted to cold climates, with thick layers of fur and fat to keep warm.

Woolly mammoths had long, curved tusks, which were actually long teeth, often over 3 meters (10 feet) in males. Their teeth were specially designed for chewing tough plants, with layers that wore down as they chewed. These mammoths also had small ears and special skin flaps to protect them from the cold.

Palaeobiology

Adult woolly mammoths could defend themselves from predators with their tusks, trunks, and size; however, juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves, cave hyenas, and large felines. The tusks may have been used in fights over territory or mates. Because of their curvature, the tusks were unsuitable for stabbing but may have been used for hitting.

Woolly mammoths were likely very social and lived in matriarchal (female-led) family groups, similar to modern elephants. They were seasonally migratory, with Polish woolly mammoths inhabiting southern Poland during winter but grazing the Polish midlands during summer.

Adaptations to cold

The woolly mammoth was probably the most specialised member of the family Elephantidae. In addition to their fur, they had fat storage in their neck and withers for times when food availability was insufficient during winter. Their haemoglobin was adapted to the cold, with three mutations to improve oxygen delivery around the body and prevent freezing.

Diet

Woolly mammoths sustained themselves on plant food, such as forbs, grasses and sedges, which were supplemented with herbaceous plants, flowering plants, shrubs, mosses, and tree matter. An adult of 6 tonnes would need to eat 180 kg (400 lb) daily.

Life history

The lifespan of woolly mammoths is thought to be similar to that of modern elephants, which can reach the age of 60 years. Woolly mammoths continued growing past adulthood, with males growing until they reached the age of 40, and females growing until they were 25. Unlike other elephants, the woolly mammoth is thought to have reached sexual maturity at 18–20 years of age.

Palaeopathology

Evidence of several different bone diseases has been found in woolly mammoths. The most common of these was osteoarthritis. Distortion in the molars is the most common health problem found in woolly mammoth fossils.

Distribution and habitat

The woolly mammoth lived in an area known as the "mammoth steppe" or "tundra steppe." This environment covered northern Asia, parts of Europe, and northern North America during the last ice age. It was similar to the grassy steppes of modern Russia but had more diverse plants, including grasses, sedges, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Scattered trees were mainly found in southern regions.

This habitat supported many other large animals, such as the woolly rhinoceros, wild horses, and bison. The southernmost known woolly mammoth was found in Shandong province of China, dating back about 33,000 years. In Europe, the southernmost remains are from the Depression of Granada in Spain, around the same age. Studies have shown that woolly mammoths lived in two distinct groups, with one group going extinct earlier in the high Arctic and another group having a wider range.

Relationship with humans

Modern humans and Neanderthals lived at the same time as woolly mammoths. These huge elephants were very important to ice age people, who used their bones for tools and building materials. For example, Neanderthals built huts using mammoth bones as foundations. Scientists did not understand this connection until the 1800s.

Woolly mammoths appear often in ancient art, like cave paintings and small sculptures. They are the third most common animal shown in this art, after horses and bison. These drawings and carvings were made between 35,000 and 11,500 years ago. Some of the biggest mammoth drawings are more than 2 meters long and were found deep inside caves.

Extinction

Most woolly mammoth populations disappeared during the late Pleistocene and mid-Holocene, along with many other large animals from that time. This was part of a larger event called the Late Pleistocene extinctions, which happened between 40,000 and 11,500 years ago. Scientists debate whether hunting by humans or changes in climate, which reduced their habitat, was the main reason for their disappearance, or if it was a mix of both.

Large mammals like mammoths are more vulnerable to extinction because they have smaller populations and produce fewer babies. As the climate changed, the cold, open lands that mammoths needed shrank, pushing them into fewer areas. Even so, when the climate became colder again, mammoth numbers grew once more. By the end of the last icy period, around 15,000 years ago, the grasslands they lived on turned into wetter forests and tundra, which were not good homes for mammoths.

Different groups of woolly mammoths went extinct at different times. Most were gone by about 10,000 years ago, but some survived much longer. In Britain, they lived until around 14,000 years ago. On Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean, a small group stayed until about 4,000 years ago, long after humans had built civilizations. Other small groups survived on islands like St. Paul Island until around 5,600 years ago. These last survivors faced tough conditions, with less food and water, which likely helped them disappear.

Fossil specimens

Further information: List of mammoth specimens

Woolly mammoth fossils have been found in many places, such as old rivers, lakes, and even in the North Sea, which was sometimes dry during icy times. These fossils are often broken and rarely include soft parts like skin or organs. Scientists used to think places with many mammoth bones were special spots where mammoths went to die, like modern elephants. But we now know these bones likely gathered in rivers over thousands of years. Sometimes, whole groups of mammoths died together, maybe during floods. Natural traps like muddy pits or holes in the ground also caught many mammoths.

Frozen mammoth remains are rare but very important. The best-preserved ones come from places in Siberia and Alaska, where the ground stays very cold. These frozen mammoths sometimes still have skin, hair, and even stomach contents. One famous example is a mammoth found in Siberia in 1901, which still had grass in its mouth, showing it died suddenly. Another well-known frozen mammoth is a calf named "Effie" found in Alaska in 1948. Scientists keep studying these amazing fossils to learn more about woolly mammoths.

Cultural significance

The woolly mammoth has stayed important in culture even long after it went extinct. Indigenous peoples in Siberia found mammoth remains and used their tusks for the ivory trade. They had many myths about mammoths — some believed they were giant birds that created mountains and lakes, while others thought they made the world by digging up land from the ocean floor.

In North America, native peoples also used mammoth ivory and bone for tools and art. They had their own stories to explain the remains, sometimes thinking they came from huge ancient beasts or giants. Mammoth tusks were traded in Asia for centuries and were used to make special items, like thrones. Today, mammoth ivory is still valuable and is sometimes used to help protect living elephants from being hunted for their ivory.