Kingdom of Hungary

The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe from 1000 to 1946. It began when Stephen I became the first king around the year 1000. His family, the Árpád dynasty, ruled for 300 years. By the 12th century, Hungary had become an important part of Europe.

In the 16th century, much of Hungary was taken over by the Ottoman Empire. The country was split into three parts: Royal Hungary under the House of Habsburg, Ottoman Hungary, and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania. The Habsburgs ruled Hungary from 1526 until 1918 and helped remove the Ottomans after the Great Turkish War.

Hungary had many struggles for independence, especially against Habsburg rule. In 1867, Hungarian lands became part of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The monarchy ended in 1918 after the last king, Charles IV, was removed. Hungary became a republic. Though the kingdom was brought back during the Regency from 1920 to 1946, it ended forever under the Soviet occupation in 1946.

At its height, the Kingdom of Hungary was a multiethnic state that covered areas of many modern countries, including Slovakia, parts of Romania, Ukraine, Serbia, Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, and Poland. It also included the Kingdom of Croatia in a personal union under the King of Hungary. Today, the feast day of Stephen I on August 20 is a national holiday in Hungary, celebrating the founding of the nation.

Names

Main article: Name of Hungary

The Kingdom of Hungary had many names. It was called Regnum Hungariae in Latin. In German, it was Königreich Ungarn. The Hungarian name Magyar Királyság was used in the 1840s and again from the 1860s until 1946. Other languages also had their own names, like Królestwo Węgier in Polish and Regatul Ungariei in Romanian.

Capital cities

Main article: List of historical capitals of Hungary

The Kingdom of Hungary had several important cities that served as its capital over time. Esztergom was an early capital and the place where King Stephen I was crowned around the year 1000. Later, cities such as Buda and Pest also became important centers for the kingdom. These cities were important for the government's work and for the culture of the people living there.

History

Origins

Main articles: Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin and Principality of Hungary

The Hungarians, led by Árpád, settled the Carpathian Basin in 895 and established the Principality of Hungary. They led raids into Western Europe until stopped by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, at the Battle of Lechfeld.

Middle Ages

High Middle Ages

The principality became the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St. Stephen I at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings were from the Árpád dynasty. Stephen I fought against Koppány and, with Bavarian help, defeated him near Veszprém. The Catholic Church received strong support from Stephen I. Stephen I was canonized as a Catholic saint in 1083 and an Eastern Orthodox saint in 2000. Around the 11th century, the Kingdom of Hungary became a Christian state, and Catholicism became a state religion.

After Stephen I's death, conflicts arose between royalty and nobles. In 1051, armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary but were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at Bratislava in 1052. Before 1052, Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by King Samuel Aba of Hungary.

This period of revolts ended during the reign of Béla I. Hungarian chroniclers praised Béla I for introducing new currency and for his kindness. He was succeeded by Ladislaus I, who further stabilized and strengthened the kingdom. Under his rule, Hungarians fought against the Cumans and acquired parts of Croatia in 1091. Kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor Coloman. With the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in Biograd in 1102, the two kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary were united under one crown. Although the precise terms of this relationship became a matter of dispute later, it is believed that Coloman created a kind of personal union between the two kingdoms. The nature of the relationship varied through time, but Croatia retained a large degree of internal autonomy, while real power rested in the hands of the local nobility.

13th century: Mongol invasion and recovery

Main article: Mongol invasion of Europe

In 1222, Andrew II issued the Golden Bull, which laid down the principles of law.

In 1241, Hungary was invaded by the Mongols. The Mongols destroyed the combined Hungarian and Cuman armies at the Battle of Mohi. The Mongol invasions resulted in the death of many people in Hungary. In 1242, after the end of the Mongol invasion, numerous fortresses were erected to defend against future invasions. In gratitude, the Hungarians acclaimed Béla IV as the "Second Founder of the Homeland," and the Hungarian Kingdom again became a strong force in Europe.

Late Middle Ages

The Árpád dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of Andrew III. Subsequently, Hungary was ruled by the Angevins until the end of the 14th century, and then by several non-dynastic rulers – notably Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, and Matthias Corvinus – until the early 16th century.

The Age of Sigismund

Louis I of Hungary kept good relationships with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV and proclaimed Charles's son Sigismund of Luxembourg to succeed him as co-ruler of his daughter Mary. Initially, Mary reigned as a sole monarch, which led to trouble. Sigismund married her in 1385 and finally became a co-ruler in 1387. After his wife's death in 1395, he remained alone on the throne. Sigismund became a well-known king who improved the Hungarian law system and rebuilt the palaces of Buda and Visegrád. He worked hard to keep the nobility under control. A great part of his reign was dedicated to the fight with the Ottoman Empire, which started to extend its influence to Europe. In 1396, the Battle of Nicopolis was fought against the Ottomans, resulting in a defeat for the Hungarian-French forces led by Sigismund. However, Sigismund continued to contain the Ottoman forces outside of the Kingdom for the rest of his life.

Hunyadi family

The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), the son of John Hunyadi. His nickname was "Matthias the Just." He improved the Hungarian economy and practiced diplomacy whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when necessary. From 1485 until his death, he occupied Vienna, aiming to limit the influence of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs.

At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully resisted conquest. John Hunyadi was leader of the Crusade of Varna, in which the Hungarians tried to stop the Turks from entering the Balkans. In 1456, John Hunyadi delivered a big defeat of the Ottomans at the Siege of Belgrade.

Early modern history

The divided kingdom

See also: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, Ottoman Hungary, Royal Hungary, Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, and Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)

Due to a defeat by the Ottomans (Battle of Mohács), the central authority collapsed. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected John Zápolya on 10 November 1526. A small minority of aristocrats sided with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, who was Archduke of Austria, and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a small group in December 1526.

Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be identified, more or less, as follows:

• Royal Hungary, which consisted of northern and western territories where Ferdinand I was recognized as king of Hungary. This part is viewed as defining the continuing Kingdom of Hungary. The territory along with Ottoman Hungary suffered greatly from the almost constant wars.
• Ottoman Hungary: The Great Alföld (i.e. most of present-day Hungary, including south-eastern Transdanubia and the Banat), partly without north-eastern present-day Hungary.
• Eastern Hungarian Kingdom under the Szapolyai. This territory, often under Ottoman influence, was different from Transylvania proper and included various other territories sometimes referred to as Partium. Later the entity was called Principality of Transylvania.

On 29 February 1528, King John I of Hungary received the support of the Ottoman Sultan. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could. By 1529 the kingdom had been split into two parts: Habsburg Hungary and the "eastern-Kingdom of Hungary." At this time there were no Ottomans on Hungarian territories, except Srem's important castles. By 1541, the fall of Buda marked a further division of Hungary into three areas. The country remained divided until the end of the 17th century.

In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the Ottoman forces, such as the Long War or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 – 1604/11 November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign by Miklós Zrínyi burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of Osijek in eastern Slavonia, interrupting a Turkish supply line in Hungary. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664), Austrians and Hungarians defeated the Turkish army.

After the Ottoman siege of Vienna failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to retake the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital Buda was again free from the Ottoman Empire, with the aid of other Europeans.

The Kuruc age

Main article: Rákóczi's War of Independence

Rákóczi's War for Independence (1703–1711) was the first big fight for freedom in Hungary against strict Habsburg rule. It was fought by a group of noblemen who wanted to protect the rights of people and help the country develop. Due to difficult situations, the fight was finally stopped, but it helped keep Hungary from fully joining the Habsburg Empire, and its laws were kept, even if only as a form.

Age of Enlightenment

In 1711, Austrian Emperor Charles VI became the next ruler of Hungary. Throughout the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own parliament and laws, but the members of the Governor's Council were chosen by the Habsburg monarch, and the top economic group was controlled from Court Chamber in Vienna.

The Hungarian language reform started under the reign of Joseph II. The reform age of Hungary was started by István Széchenyi, a Hungarian noble, who built one of the greatest bridges of Hungary, the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. The official language remained Latin until 1836, when Hungarian was introduced. Between 1844 and 1849, and from 1867 onward, Hungarian became the only official language.

Hungarian Revolution of 1848

Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

The European revolutions of 1848 spread into Hungary, too. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 wanted change and independence. The Hungarian National Guard was created by young Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest poet of the revolution, Sándor Petőfi.

As war broke out with Austria, Hungarian military successes forced the Austrians to defend themselves. One of the most famous battles of the revolution, the Battle of Pákozd, was fought on 29 September 1848, when the Hungarian revolutionary army led by Lieutenant-General János Móga defeated the troops of the Croatian leader Josip Jelačić. Fearing defeat, the Austrians asked for help from Russia. The combined forces of the two empires stopped the revolution. The desired political changes of 1848 were stopped until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.

Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)

Following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Habsburg Monarchy became the "dual monarchy" of Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed during this time. Industry and cities grew fast. By the early 20th century, most of the Empire was growing well. The GNP per capita grew each year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth was good compared to other European nations such as Britain, France, and Germany.

The lands of the Hungarian Crown were granted equal status with the Austrian Empire. Each of the two states had independence, with certain shared areas like the ruling family, defense, foreign affairs, and finances for shared spending. This arrangement lasted until 1918, when the Central Powers were defeated in World War I.

Transitions (1918 to 1920)

Two short-lived republics

Main articles: Hungarian Democratic Republic and Hungarian Soviet Republic

The Hungarian Soviet Republic was a short-lived independent communist state established in Hungary.

It lasted only from 21 March until 1 August 1919. The state was led by Béla Kun. It was the second socialist state in the world after the October Revolution in Russia. The Hungarian Republic of Councils had military conflicts with the Kingdom of Romania, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and Czechoslovakia. It ended on 1 August 1919 when representatives negotiated to give in to the Romanian forces and Béla Kun fled to Austria.

A 1919 attempt to join with the Kingdom of Romania failed when the Romanian King refused the Hungarian Crown.

The restoration of the Kingdom

After Romanian forces left in 1920 the country had internal conflict, with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists removing communists and others they did not trust. On 29 February 1920, after the last Romanian forces left, the Kingdom of Hungary was restored, and a group of right-wing leaders made Hungary a constitutional monarchy again. Choosing a new King took time because of fights inside the country, so a regent was chosen to represent the monarchy, former Austro-Hungarian navy admiral Miklós Horthy.

Treaty of Trianon (1920)

The new borders set in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon gave 72% of the land of the Kingdom of Hungary to neighboring states. The main lands went to Romania, the new states of Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, but Austria, Poland and Italy also gained smaller lands. Many Hungarians were left outside the new borders of Hungary. Some see this as going against the terms of US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which were meant to respect the people living in those areas. As President Wilson disagreed with the decision and left the meeting, and because the US Congress did not approve the treaty, the United States and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29 August 1921.

Between 1920 and 1946

Interwar period

Main articles: Hungary between the World Wars and Hungarian interwar economy

The new borders separated Hungary from many of its resources and markets. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Post-Trianon Hungary kept 90% of the engineering and printing industry, but only 11% of timber and 16% iron. Also, 61% of arable land, 74% of public roads, 65% of canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron production, 55% of industrial plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and 67% of credit and banking were lost.

Because most industry was near Budapest, Hungary kept about 51% of its workers and 56% of its industry. Horthy made Count Pál Teleki Prime Minister in July 1920. His government made laws to limit people who might be unsafe and took steps to share land from big farms. Teleki's government ended after King Charles tried to take back Hungary's throne in March 1921. The return of King Charles caused fights between groups. Count István Bethlen, took charge and formed a new group. Horthy then made Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after failing again to take the throne in October 1921. (For more detail, see Charles IV of Hungary's attempts to retake the throne.)

As prime minister, Bethlen led Hungary from 1921 to 1931. He made a system to control politics, gave jobs to his supporters, and changed votes in the countryside. Bethlen made Hungary join the League of Nations in 1922 and made friends with Italy in 1927. Changing the Treaty of Trianon became an important goal for Hungary and Bethlen used this to support his policies.

The Great Depression made life harder and politics moved to the right. In 1932 Horthy made a new prime minister, Gyula Gömbös, who worked closer with Germany. Gömbös made a trade deal with Germany that helped Hungary but made it depend on Germany. On 2 November 1938, parts of Czechoslovakia were returned to Hungary, an area of 11,927 km² and a population of 869,299 (86.5% of whom were Hungarians). Between 5 November and 10 November, Hungarian forces moved into these lands. Hitler promised to give all of Slovakia to Hungary, but this was turned down. Instead, Hungary chose to change its borders based on where people lived. In March 1939, Czechoslovakia broke up, Germany took over, and Slovakia became independent.

On 15 March, Carpatho-Ukraine said it would be independent. Hungary did not accept this and, between 14 March and 18 March, Hungarian forces took over the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia and removed the government of Avgustyn Voloshyn. Hungary also supported the Nazi puppet state of Slovakia led by Jozef Tiso. In September 1940, to avoid war with Romania, the Second Vienna Award gave northern Transylvania to Hungary, an area of 43,492 km² with a population of 2,578,100, of whom 53.5% were Hungarian. This eased tensions between Hungary and Romania. The area of Sub-Carpathia was given special status to be ruled by the Ruthenian minority.

During World War II 1941–1945

Main article: Hungary during World War II

After getting parts of Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia from Germany and Italy in 1938, and then northern Transylvania in 1940, Hungary joined the Axis powers in 1941. The Hungarian army joined the invasion of Yugoslavia and then joined the Axis. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union on 26 June, and entered World War II on the side of the Axis. In late 1941, Hungarian troops did well at the Battle of Uman. By 1943, after heavy losses at the river Don, the Hungarian government tried to stop the war. On 19 March 1944, German troops took over Hungary in Operation Margarethe. By then, it was clear Hungary would be controlled by Germany to keep fighting for the Nazi Third Reich because of its important place. On 15 October 1944, Horthy tried to stop fighting. The Germans started Operation Panzerfaust and Horthy's government was replaced by a government led by Ferenc Szálasi, ending Hungary's ability to act independently. However, the form of government changed to a republic two years later.

Transitioning into a republic

After World War II, the Soviet Union took control of Hungary. They took valuable things and controlled the country. After the Red Army created police groups to deal with opponents, they thought the Hungarian people would support the Communists. The Communists did not do well in elections, getting only 17% of the vote, so there was a government led by Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy. But the Soviets put Communists in important jobs and used strict rules to stop opposition. In 1946 the government became a republic. Soon after ending the monarchy, the Soviet Union made leader Mátyás Rákosi increase conflict. This started a communist state that lasted until 23 October 1956 when the Soviet occupation was ended by the Hungarian uprising, only to be restored until 1989 when Communists gave up power, leading to free elections in March 1990. Today's republic sees the Kingdom as part of its history. This is shown in its symbols such as the Holy Crown of Hungary and the coat of arms of Hungary, which are the same as during the monarchy. Some holidays, the official language (Hungarian), and the capital city Budapest are also kept. The official Hungarian name of the country is Magyarország (simply Hungary) since 2012; it was also the common name of the monarchy. The 1000th year of Hungarian statehood was celebrated in 2000 under the Millennium Act of 2000.