Russia

Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country in Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world. It stretches across many areas and shares borders with fourteen countries. With a population of over 140 million, it is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world.

Human settlement in Russia goes back a very long time. The East Slavs formed the Kievan Rus' long ago. This later became the Tsardom of Russia and then the Russian Empire. In 1917, the Russian Revolution happened, which led to the creation of the Soviet Union. After World War II, the Soviet Union became very powerful during the Cold War.

In 1991, the Soviet Union ended, and the independent Russian Federation began. Today, Russia is considered a great power. It has a strong military and many natural resources like oil and natural gas. Russia is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and plays an important role in world events.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia

The name "Russia" comes from old words used to talk about people and places long ago. In the 14th century, people in England began calling the country "Russia." They borrowed the word from Latin.

In Russian, there are different words to talk about the country and its people. The word russkiy means ethnic Russians. The word rossiiskiy refers to anyone who is a citizen of Russia, no matter where they come from.

Long ago, the early Russian state was called Rus'. This name came from a group of people from Sweden. Over time, the name changed to Rossiya, which is used today. Even now, poets sometimes use the word Rus' to talk about the spirit or history of Russia.

History

Main article: History of Russia

Early history

Further information: Ancient Greek colonies, Early Slavs, Huns, Turkic expansion, and Prehistory of Siberia

See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homeland

The first human settlement in Russia dates back to the early times. About 2 million years ago, early humans moved to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia. Tools made from stone have been found in the North Caucasus. Fossils from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains show that some of the oldest humans lived there. Russia was also home to some of the last surviving early humans, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.

The first signs of modern humans in Russia are from about 45,000 years ago, in Western Siberia. Important discoveries of human remains were made at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo and Sungir, both in western Russia. Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya. Populations from Siberia were important to the genetic makeup of early people in North America and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.

The Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine is thought to be the original home of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Early movements of people from the Pontic–Caspian steppe spread their languages across much of Eurasia. Nomadic life developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Remnants of these cultures were found in places like Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk, showing some of the earliest known use of horses in war. The genetic makeup of people in northern Europe was shaped by migrations from Siberia beginning at least 3,500 years ago.

In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, a kingdom existed in southern Russia, which was later taken over by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, another kingdom was also overwhelmed by invasions. The Khazars, of Turkic origin, ruled parts of the steppes until the 10th century. After them came the Pechenegs, who were later taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.

The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that appeared in northeastern Europe about 1,500 years ago. The East Slavs settled western Russia between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg. Before this, the area was home to Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century, the East Slavs gradually became the dominant group.

Kievan Rus'

Main articles: Rus' Khaganate; [Kievan Rus']/](/w/388); and List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine

The first East Slavic states began in the 9th century with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who traveled along waterways to the Black and Caspian Seas. According to records, a Varangian named Rurik became ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg conquered Kiev. Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav brought all local East Slavic tribes under their rule and launched military campaigns to several regions.

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most successful states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great and his son Yaroslav the Wise were a golden age for Kiev, marked by the adoption of Orthodox Christianity and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda. As time went on, Kievan Rus' became weaker due to internal conflicts. Kiev lost its importance, and the region split into different areas. Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky took control of Kiev in 1169, shifting power to the northeast.

Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians defended against attacks from the Swedes and Germanic crusaders.

Kievan Rus' fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which destroyed Kiev and other cities. The invaders, known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled Russia for the next two centuries. Only the Novgorod Republic avoided occupation by agreeing to pay tribute. Galicia-Volhynia was later taken over by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to thrive. In the northeast, the traditions of Kievan Rus' helped form the Russian state.

Grand Principality of Moscow

Main article: Grand Principality of Moscow

The fall of Kievan Rus' led to the rise of the Grand Principality of Moscow, originally part of Vladimir-Suzdal. Under Mongol rule, Moscow began to grow in influence in the early 14th century. When the seat of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its importance increased. Moscow's main rival, the Novgorod Republic, was a center for the fur trade and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy, the united army of Russian principalities defeated the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow absorbed surrounding areas, including rivals like Tver and Novgorod.

Ivan III ("the Great") ended control by the Golden Horde and gained control over Russian lands. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed to continue the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and adopted the Byzantine double-headed eagle as Russia's coat-of-arms. Vasili III united all of Russia by taking over the last independent Russian states in the early 16th century.

Tsardom of Russia

Main article: Tsardom of Russia

See also: Moscow, third Rome

The grand prince Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially named the first tsar of all Russia in 1547. He created new laws, established the first representative body, reformed the military, and reorganized local government. During his reign, Ivan expanded Russian territory by taking over three Tatar khanates along the Volga, and east of the Ural Mountains. However, the Tsardom faced difficulties due to long wars and attacks. In 1571, Crimean Tatars burned Moscow, but were defeated the following year.

The death of Ivan's sons ended the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598. Combined with a severe famine of 1601–1603, this led to civil war and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied parts of Russia, but were driven out in 1612 by Russian forces led by Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky. The Romanov dynasty began in 1613, and the country began to recover.

Russia grew in the 17th century, a time for the Cossacks. In 1654, Ukraine agreed to come under Russian protection, leading to another war. Russian explorers continued to move eastward into Siberia, reaching the Pacific Ocean by the mid-17th century. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov was the first European to sail through the Bering Strait.

Imperial Russia

Under Peter the Great, Russia became an empire in 1721 and one of Europe's leading powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden and gained access to the sea. In 1703, he founded Saint Petersburg as the new capital. He made many changes that brought Western European culture to Russia. He was followed by Catherine I, Peter II, and Anna. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth included Russia's involvement in the Seven Years' War. During this time, Russian troops reached Berlin, but these gains were later returned to Kingdom of Prussia by Peter III of Russia.

Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, expanded Russian control over Poland and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, making Russia the most populous country in Europe. She also advanced Russia's borders to the Black Sea and annexed Crimea. She took over the Caucasus and conquered Alaska. In the early 1800s, Russia made its first circumnavigation and discovered Antarctica.

Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts

During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia fought against France. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 reached Moscow but failed due to Russian resistance and harsh winter conditions. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army pushed Napoleon out of Russia and into Europe. Alexander I played a key role at the Congress of Vienna.

Some officers who fought in Europe brought back ideas of change to Russia, leading to an attempt to limit the tsar's power in the Decembrist revolt of 1825. At the end of the rule of Nicholas I, Russia faced a setback with defeat in the Crimean War.

Great liberal reforms and capitalism

Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) made important changes, including the emancipation reform of 1861. These changes helped start industrialization and modernized the army. During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain had a rivalry in Central and South Asia known as the Great Game.

The late 19th century saw the rise of socialist movements. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionaries. His son Alexander III ruled in a less liberal but more peaceful way.

Constitutional monarchy and World War

Under Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was sparked by a defeat in war. The government made reforms, including granting freedoms and creating a legislative body, the State Duma.

Revolution and civil war

In 1914, Russia entered World War I in support of its ally Serbia. Public distrust grew due to the costs of war and high losses, leading to the Russian Revolution of 1917. In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The monarchy was replaced by a temporary government. In 1917, Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik party took control, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state. A civil war followed between the Bolsheviks and their opponents. After signing a peace treaty, Russia lost some of its western territories.

The war caused great damage to Russia's economy and many people died. Millions left Russia, and a severe famine affected millions more.

Soviet Union

Main article: History of the Soviet Union

Command economy and Soviet society

On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his colleagues formed the Soviet Union, joining the Russian SFSR with other republics. Over time, the union grew to include 15 republics, with the Russian SFSR being the largest.

After Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin took control. Under his rule, the country underwent major changes, including the creation of a command economy and the forced organization of agriculture. Many people were sent to labor camps or exiled. A severe famine in the early 1930s caused millions of deaths.

World War II and United Nations

Main article: Soviet Union in World War II

The Soviet Union joined World War II in 1939 and later fought Germany from 1941 to 1945. The war caused huge losses of life and damage to the country. The Soviet Union emerged as a superpower.

Superpower and Cold War

After World War II, the Soviet Union occupied parts of Europe and became one of the world's nuclear powers. It entered a period of tension with the United States known as the Cold War.

Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development

After Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev led the country and introduced reforms that eased some strict policies. The Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, and Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space.

Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation

After Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev took over. His time in office is often called the Era of Stagnation. In 1979, Soviet forces invaded Afghanistan, beginning the Soviet–Afghan War. In 1988, they began to leave.

Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty

From 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev introduced reforms aimed at changing the Soviet system. This led to nationalist movements and the eventual breakup of the Soviet Union. In 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first elected President of the Russian SFSR. In December 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved, leading to the creation of 15 independent post-Soviet states.

Independent Russian Federation

Main article: History of Russia (1991–present)

Transition to a market economy and political crises

The collapse of the Soviet Union brought economic and political hardship. Reforms were made to create a market economy, but this led to the rise of wealthy individuals known as Russian oligarchs. Social services declined, and many people became poor.

In 1993, a conflict between Yeltsin and the parliament ended with military force. Over 100 people died.

Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation

A new constitution was approved in 1993, giving the president strong powers. The 1990s saw conflicts in the North Caucasus, including wars in Chechnya. Separatists carried out terrorist attacks against civilians.

After the Soviet Union ended, Russia took on the country's debts. In 1998, a financial crisis caused further economic decline.

Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding

Further information: Putinism

In 1999, Vladimir Putin became president. He defeated a rebellion in Chechnya. Putin was re-elected in 2004. Economic growth improved due to high oil prices. Putin's rule increased stability but moved Russia towards an authoritarian state. In 2008, Putin became prime minister while Dmitry Medvedev served as president.

In 2008, Russia invaded Georgia, leading to the occupation of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The 2008 constitutional amendments extended the president's term. Putin won the 2012 presidential election, which led to protests.

Russo-Ukrainian war and 2022 invasion

Main article: Russo-Ukrainian war

In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea and supported separatists in eastern Ukraine. This led to a conflict that escalated into a full-scale invasion on 24 February 2022. The invasion was widely condemned, and Russia faced international sanctions. Russia was removed from international groups. The war continues, with heavy losses on both sides. Russian forces have been accused of war crimes.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Russia

Russia is the largest country in the world. It stretches across both Europe and Asia. The country has a long coastline and many mountains, including the Caucasus Mountains where Mount Elbrus is located. Mount Elbrus is the highest peak in Europe. Russia also has many islands and lakes. Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the world.

Main article: Climate of Russia

Russia has many different climates because it is so big. Most of the country has cold winters and warm summers. The far north is very cold all year. Some areas near the Black Sea have milder winters. Climate change is affecting Russia. It causes more wildfires and melting permafrost.

Main article: Wildlife of Russia

See also: List of ecoregions in Russia

Russia has many different environments, from arctic tundra to forests and grasslands. The country is home to many plants and animals, including over 320 types of mammals and many birds. Russia has protected areas where nature is preserved.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Russia

Russia is a symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system. The president is the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. The government is a multi-party representative democracy, with three main parts: making laws, running the country, and courts.

The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia makes laws and agrees to treaties. The president leads the Armed Forces and chooses government leaders. Courts read laws and can stop those they think are unconstitutional.

Russia’s past has included different ways of ruling, from kings to Soviet times, and now it has a stronger central government.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Russia

Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in Russia

Russia has a strong economy and is one of the biggest countries for business. It is rich in many things that people use and sell. The service sector is the biggest part of the economy. Industry and farming are also important. Russia has many workers.

Russia's economy sometimes has problems, like unfair sharing of money and different parts of the country growing at different speeds. But the country stays strong because of things like spending on its military and jobs for people.

Transport and energy

Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in Russia

Russia has many ways for people and things to travel, including a very long railway and many roads. The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway in the world. Russia has lots of natural resources, especially natural gas and oil, so it sells these to other countries. Russia is also good at making energy from nuclear power and has lots of chance to make energy from nature, like wind and sun, but it does not use these much yet.

Agriculture and fishery

Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in Russia

Farming and fishing help a little bit in Russia's economy. The country has lots of land for growing food and is one of the biggest sellers of wheat. Russia also catches a lot of fish because it has coastlines on many oceans.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Russia

See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of Russian inventors

Russia spends money on learning new things and does well in science. Famous Russian scientists and inventors include Dmitry Mendeleev, who made the Periodic Table, and Yuri Gagarin, the first person to travel into space. Russia keeps working on new ideas in math, physics, and space exploration.

Space exploration

Roscosmos is Russia's space agency. Russia has a long history in space. It started with launching Sputnik 1, the first man-made satellite, and sending Yuri Gagarin, the first person into space. Many other firsts followed, like the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, and the first spacewalk by Alexei Leonov. Russia still works in space with satellites and missions to the Moon.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Russia

Russia has many beautiful places and important history, so many people visit. Popular places to see include the Golden Ring cities, trips on the Volga River, the Caucasus Mountains, and riding the Trans-Siberian Railway. Famous spots like Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, and Saint Basil's Cathedral attract visitors. Moscow and Saint Petersburg are full of museums, theaters, and old buildings.

Demographics

Russia has about 146 million people. It is the biggest country in Europe and the ninth biggest in the world. Most people live in the western part of the country. Two-thirds of people live in cities.

Russia has many different ethnic groups. About 81% of the population are ethnic Russians. The country also has many immigrants from other countries that were formerly part of the Soviet Union.

Language

Russian is the official language of Russia and is spoken by most people. It is one of the official languages of the United Nations. Russia also has many minority languages.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Russia

Russia is a secular country, but the most common religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, mainly followed by the Russian Orthodox Church. Islam is also common in some areas. Other religions practiced in Russia include Judaism, Buddhism, and various traditional beliefs.

Education

Main article: Education in Russia

Russia has a strong education system. Children attend school for 11 years, starting at age 7. Many continue their education, and Russia has some of the oldest and most famous universities in the world.

Health

Main article: Health in Russia

Further information: Healthcare in Russia

Russia provides free healthcare to all its citizens. The country has improved life expectancy over the years. The healthcare system has changed since the 1990s, with more focus on local management and private healthcare options.

Culture

Russian culture is rich and varied. It has been shaped by many years of history and many different peoples and ideas. Russia has made important contributions to classical music, ballet, theatre, mathematics, sport, painting, and cinema. Famous Russian writers and philosophers have influenced European literature and thought. Russia has also been a pioneer in science, technology, and space exploration.

Russia has many UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and people from Russia living in other countries have helped spread Russian culture around the world. The double-headed eagle is a national symbol, and the Russian Bear and Mother Russia are popular symbols. Matryoshka dolls are also well-known.

Holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Russia

Russia has several important holidays. The year starts with New Year's Day on January 1, followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on January 7. Defender of the Fatherland Day on February 23 celebrates men, while International Women's Day on March 8 is widely enjoyed. Spring and Labour Day is on May 1. Victory Day on May 9 honors the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany, with big parades in Moscow. Russia Day on June 12 celebrates Russia's independence, and Unity Day on November 4 marks the end of Polish occupation of Moscow. Other popular holidays include Old New Year on January 14, Maslenitsa, Cosmonautics Day on April 12, Easter, and Trinity Sunday.

Art and architecture

Early Russian art includes icons and paintings, with Andrei Rublev being a famous artist. The Russian Academy of Arts, created in 1757, brought Western styles to Russia. Famous painters include Ivan Aivazovsky, known for marine art, and Karl Briullov, known for historical scenes. In the 19th century, realists like Ivan Kramskoy and Ilya Repin emerged, followed by symbolists and the Russian avant-garde in the early 20th century.

Russian architecture started with wooden buildings and churches. Byzantine architecture influenced early Russia, and later, Italian architects brought Renaissance styles to Moscow. Special features like tent-like churches and onion domes developed in the 16th century. Western European styles, including Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Art Nouveau, influenced Russian architecture in later years.

Music

Main article: Music of Russia

Russian music started with church music and folk songs. In the 19th century, composers like Mikhail Glinka and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky appeared, followed by Sergei Rachmaninoff and Igor Stravinsky in the 20th century. During the Soviet era, popular music included balladeers like Vladimir Vysotsky and performers like Alla Pugacheva. Jazz and rock music also became popular, with bands like Aria and Kino gaining fame. Pop music has continued to grow in Russia.

Literature and philosophy

Russian literature is very important, with roots in the Early Middle Ages. The Golden Age of Russian Poetry in the early 19th century produced poets like Vasily Zhukovsky and Alexander Pushkin. Novelists like Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Leo Tolstoy became famous around the world. In the 20th century, authors like Anton Chekhov and Mikhail Bulgakov gained recognition. Russian philosophy has also made important contributions, with thinkers like Vladimir Solovyov, Nikolai Berdyaev, and Vladimir Lenin.

Mass media and cinema

Main articles: Media of Russia and Cinema of Russia

Russia has many news agencies, with TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax being well-known internationally. Television is the most popular medium, with Channel One and Russia-1 being top news channels. RT is Russia's main international media outlet. Russian cinema has made world-famous films, with directors like Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky. Soviet-era filmmakers made big contributions, and Russian cinema has kept growing since the late 2000s.

Cuisine

Russian food is shaped by the country's different climates and lands. Popular foods include bread, soups like borsch and shchi, pancakes, and meat dishes like Beef Stroganoff and pelmeni. Kvass is the national drink without alcohol, and vodka is the national drink with alcohol. Tea has been popular in Russia for many years.

Sports

Main article: Sport in Russia

Football is the most popular sport in Russia, with the Soviet national team winning Euro 1960 and Russian clubs doing well in European competitions. Ice hockey is also very popular, with the Soviet national team leading the sport. Bandy is Russia's national sport. Russia has done well in rhythmic gymnastics, synchronised swimming, figure skating, and tennis. Chess is a popular activity, and Russia hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2014 Winter Olympics.