British Empire

The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories headed by the British monarchy. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, and colonisation attempts by Scotland during the 17th century. At its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it became the largest empire in history and, for a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 percent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km² (13.7 million sq mi), 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.

During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the world, and in the process established large overseas empires. Motivated by the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left Britain the dominant colonial power in North America. Britain became a major power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. While retaining control of British North America (now Canada) and territories in and near the Caribbean in the British West Indies, British colonial expansion turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in Southeast Asia. The Great Game and Scramble for Africa also ensued. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica (Latin for "British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectively controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. It also came to dominate the Middle East. Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified as Dominions by the 1920s. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power.

In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige and the British economy helped accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the handover of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire, though fourteen overseas territories that are remnants of the empire remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain the same person as monarch, currently King Charles III.

Origins (1497–1583)

A replica of the Matthew, John Cabot's ship used for his second voyage to the New World in 1497

The British Empire began when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England sent John Cabot to find a shorter route to Asia. Cabot sailed in 1497 and reached the coast of Newfoundland, thinking it was Asia. He tried another voyage but disappeared.

Later, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, England started trying to build its own colonies. Writers like Richard Hakluyt and John Dee encouraged this idea. England also sent ships to raid Spanish and Portuguese ships near West Africa and along the coast of the Americas. Meanwhile, other countries like Spain, Portugal, France, and others were already building their own colonies around the world.

English overseas possessions (1583–1707)

Main article: English overseas possessions

In 1578, Elizabeth I allowed Humphrey Gilbert to explore new lands. He tried to start a colony in the Caribbean but failed. Later, he tried again and claimed a part of Newfoundland, but he didn’t live to return to England. His half-brother, Walter Raleigh, took over and started a colony called the Roanoke Colony in what is now North Carolina, but it also failed because they ran out of supplies.

A 1670 illustration of African slaves working in 17th-century colonial Virginia in British America

During this time, England fully conquered Ireland and began to compete with Spain at sea. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became king of England too, as James I, and made peace with Spain. With this peace, England began focusing more on building its own colonies instead of taking from others. This period, lasting until the American War of Independence in the late 18th century, is sometimes called the “First British Empire.” It included settlements in North America and the Caribbean, and the creation of trading companies like the East India Company to manage these new lands.

Main articles: British colonisation of the Americas, British America, Thirteen Colonies, British West Indies, and Atlantic slave trade

England’s early attempts to build colonies in the Americas had mixed results. One try in Guiana in 1604 didn’t last long. Colonies on islands like St Lucia and Grenada also failed quickly. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown in 1607, led by John Smith. Bermuda was claimed after a ship ran aground there in 1609. Other colonies followed, such as Plymouth in 1620, founded by Puritan families seeking religious freedom.

Fort St. George in Madras, India, was founded in 1639.

The British West Indies became very important to England, especially after the “Sugar Revolution” in the mid-1600s. Sugar plantations grew quickly, and the need for labour led to the use of enslaved people from Africa. This made colonies like Barbados very wealthy and led to more sugar plantations across the Caribbean.

Main article: East India Company

In the late 1500s, England and the Dutch Empire started competing with the Portuguese Empire for trade in Asia. They created companies to fund these trips, like the English East India Company. These companies focused on trading spices and textiles, mostly in places like India and the East Indies. Even though the Dutch had more money and won some wars, peace came after the Glorious Revolution in 1688. Later, England joined forces with the Dutch and others in wars against France and Spain, which helped England become stronger in colonial matters.

Colonies and territories of Scotland (1629–1707)

Main article: Scottish colonization of the Americas

Before the United Kingdom existed, Scotland tried to build its own colonies. In the 1600s, Scottish people tried to create settlements in places like Ireland and Canada. One of these attempts was in Nova Scotia, which is now part of Canada. Many Scots also moved to a place in Ireland called Ulster.

Scotland made several tries to start colonies in North America. The first was in Nova Scotia in 1629. Earlier attempts had failed, but this one succeeded. Later, Scots tried to create colonies in Carolina and East New Jersey during the 1680s. These efforts were challenging and did not last long. In South America, Scotland tried to build a colony in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama, but it had to be abandoned after facing difficulties.

Expansion and colonial conflict (1707–1783)

The 18th century marked the rise of newly united Great Britain as the world's leading colonial power, with France as its main rival. Britain, along with Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire, fought in the War of the Spanish Succession until 1714. This war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, which saw Britain gain territories such as Newfoundland and Acadia from France, and Gibraltar and Menorca from Spain. Gibraltar became an important naval base, allowing Britain to control the Atlantic entry to the Mediterranean.

In India, British and Dutch merchants competed for trade, with the British eventually gaining the upper hand. Conflicts between British and French forces, along with local rulers, shaped the region. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked a major British victory, giving the British East India Company control over Bengal and increasing its influence in India. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) further solidified Britain's power, ending French hopes of controlling India and establishing Britain as the dominant maritime power globally.

Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the East India Company as both a military and commercial power.

Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies

Main articles: American Revolution, American Revolutionary War, Decolonization of the Americas, British North America, History of Canada (1763–1867), and War of 1812

Tensions between Britain and its American colonies grew in the 1760s and 1770s, mainly due to disputes over taxation without representation. The American Revolution began in 1775, and in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies declared independence as the United States of America. With help from France and Spain, the American forces secured victory, and peace was formally recognized in the Peace of Paris in 1783. This loss led Britain to shift its focus toward Asia, the Pacific, and Africa. The migration of Loyalists to Canada after the war resulted in the creation of new provinces, including Upper Canada and Lower Canada, to manage the growing population and prevent future conflicts.

Consolidation and global dominance (1783–1815)

Main articles: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of New Zealand

Main article: French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

Portrait of James Cook by Nathaniel Dance-Holland, 1775. James Cook's mission was to find the alleged southern continent Terra Australis.

Main article: Abolitionism in the United Kingdom

After losing the American colonies in 1783, Britain turned its attention to Australia and New Zealand. Explorer James Cook had already mapped parts of these lands. Britain began sending people convicted of crimes to Australia as a new place for them to live. This led to the growth of colonies there, which later became important for trading goods like wool and gold.

Britain also grew its power in India, taking control from local rulers through a series of wars. Meanwhile, Britain faced off against France in the Napoleonic Wars. The British navy played a key role in these conflicts, helping to protect Britain and its colonies. During this time, Britain also worked to end the slave trade. Laws were passed to abolish slavery throughout the empire, marking a significant change in how people were treated.

Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)

See also: Timeline of British diplomatic history § 1815–1860, Industrial Revolution, and Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era

Between 1815 and 1914, the British Empire grew huge, adding around 10 million square miles of land and about 400 million people. After defeating Napoleon, Britain had no strong rivals and ruled the seas. This time was called the Pax Britannica. Britain also controlled the economies of many countries, even without direct rule.

New technologies like the steamship and the telegraph helped Britain manage its far-reaching empire. By 1902, a network of telegraph cables connected all parts of the empire, known as the All Red Line.

An 1876 political cartoon of Benjamin Disraeli making Queen Victoria Empress of India. The caption reads "New crowns for old ones!"

East India Company rule and the British Raj in India

Main article: Presidencies and provinces of British India

See also: Company rule in India and British Raj

The East India Company expanded British control in Asia. It worked with the Royal Navy in many places outside India. The company traded opium to Qing China, which helped Britain pay for tea. This trade led to the First Opium War, and Britain took over Hong Kong Island and other areas.

British cavalry charging against Russian forces at Balaclava in 1854

Later, the British government took over from the company after a big rebellion in India in 1857. This began the British Raj, with India becoming very important to the empire.

New Zealand

Main article: Colony of New Zealand

In the late 1700s and early 1800s, Europeans arrived in New Zealand, trading with the Māori people. In 1840, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed, and British rule began.

The Rhodes Colossus—Cecil Rhodes spanning "Cape to Cairo"

Rivalry with Russia

Main article: The Great Game

In the 1800s, Britain and Russia competed for power in Central Asia. This was called the "Great Game." Britain worried Russia might attack India. They fought in Afghanistan and the Crimean War, but later made agreements.

Cape to Cairo

Main articles: History of South Africa (1815–1910), History of Egypt under the British, and Scramble for Africa

Britain took control of the Dutch Cape Colony in southern Africa. Later, they built the Suez Canal, which was very important for trade. Britain also expanded into many parts of Africa during this time.

Changing status of the white colonies

Main articles: Dominions, Canadian Confederation, Federation of Australia, Irish Home Rule movement, and Independence of New Zealand

Some parts of the empire, like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, began to govern themselves more. Ireland also wanted more self-rule, but this caused many debates in Britain.

World wars (1914–1945)

Main article: History of the United Kingdom during the First World War

A poster urging men from countries of the British Empire to enlist

As the 20th century began, Britain worried about defending its empire while keeping its policy of "splendid isolation." Germany was growing stronger and seen as a likely enemy. Britain formed alliances with Japan in 1902 and with France and Russia in 1904 and 1907 to protect itself.

The First World War began in 1914 when Britain declared war on Germany. Britain and its empire played major roles in the war. Over 2.5 million men from the Dominions served, and their efforts were important. After the war, the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 added new lands to the empire, including parts of Germany and the Ottoman Empire. The Dominions like Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa also gained their own territories.

The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921

Main articles: Interwar Britain, Irish revolutionary period, Indian independence movement, Partition of the Ottoman Empire, and Commonwealth of Nations

The years between the world wars brought big changes. The rise of the United States and Japan as powerful nations made Britain rethink its policies. Ireland declared independence in 1921, becoming the Irish Free State, though six counties stayed part of the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. India also pushed hard for independence, leading to tension and protests.

When World War II began in 1939, Britain and its empire were ready to fight. The Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa chose to join the war, while Ireland stayed neutral. After France fell in 1940, Britain stood alone until the United States began to help. The war brought many challenges, including defeats in the Far East that hurt Britain’s reputation. The war also weakened the empire and changed the world, pushing the United States and the Soviet Union to become leading powers.

Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)

Further information: Decolonization

After World War II, Britain faced big changes. The war had left many countries in Europe damaged, and new powers—the United States and the Soviet Union—were now the strongest forces in the world. Britain, though victorious, was also very poor and needed a large loan from the United States to recover. Meanwhile, many of Britain’s colonies wanted to govern themselves, leading to rising movements for independence across the empire.

Britain tried to keep its influence by supporting friendly governments in its former colonies. Unlike some other European countries, Britain mostly chose to give up its colonies peacefully. From 1945 to 1965, the number of people under British rule dropped from 700 million to just 5 million, mostly in Hong Kong. This period marked the end of Britain’s role as a major world power and the beginning of its transition to a country focused more on its relationships within the Commonwealth—a group of nations mostly made up of former British colonies.

Initial disengagement

Main articles: Partition of India, 1947–1949 Palestine war, and Malayan Emergency

The Labour government, led by Clement Attlee, quickly worked to grant independence to India. India’s two main political groups—the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League—disagreed on how independence should happen. The Congress wanted a united India, while the League wanted a separate Muslim state. This led to a quick but messy partition, creating the nations of India and Pakistan. Many people had to move to avoid violence, and thousands of lives were lost.

Britain also faced challenges in Palestine, where Jewish and Arab communities clashed over the creation of a Jewish state. Britain decided to leave the matter to the United Nations, which voted to split Palestine into Jewish and Arab areas. This led to conflict and the creation of the State of Israel in 1948.

In Malaya, after Japan’s surrender in World War II, resistance groups turned against British rule. The British worked with local leaders to grant independence to Malaya in 1957, which later became part of Malaysia. Singapore, however, left Malaysia in 1965 and became its own country.

Suez and its aftermath

Main article: Suez Crisis

In 1956, Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdul Nasser took control of the Suez Canal, which Britain had used for many years. Britain tried to take it back by working with France and Israel, but the United States refused to support the attack and forced Britain to withdraw. This event showed the world that Britain could no longer act as a major world power without support from the United States.

Wind of change

Main articles: Decolonisation of Africa and Decolonization of Asia

Further information: Wind of Change (speech)

Britain continued to grant independence to many of its colonies in Africa and Asia. In Africa, countries like Ghana and Nigeria became independent in the 1960s. In Asia, Malaysia and Singapore gained independence, and Brunei became fully independent in 1984.

End of empire

By the 1980s, most of Britain’s colonies had become independent. In 1982, Britain successfully defended the Falkland Islands after Argentina tried to take them over. The last major British colony, Hong Kong, was handed back to China in 1997 after a special agreement. This event marked the end of the British Empire as it was known.