Pakistan

Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, and has the second-largest Muslim population as of 2023. The capital is Islamabad, while Karachi is its largest city and financial center.

The land of Pakistan has a rich history, being home to ancient cultures like the Indus Valley Civilisation and many empires throughout the centuries. Pakistan gained independence in 1947 after the partition of British India, leading to a large movement of people. Over the years, it has developed into a middle power with a strong military and a growing economy, though it still faces challenges such as poverty and terrorism. Pakistan is also a member of many international organizations, including the United Nations.

Etymology

The name Pakistan was created by an activist named Choudhry Rahmat Ali in 1933. He formed it as an acronym using letters from the names of several lands: Panjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan.

Rahmat Ali said the word means "the land of the pure" in both Persian and Urdu. It combines the word for "pure" with the suffix “-stan,” which means “land” or “place of.”

History

Main article: History of Pakistan

See also: Timeline of Pakistani history

Prehistory and antiquity

Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan. The earliest known stone tools in the region, dating to the Lower Palaeolithic (~2 million years ago), were discovered in the Soan Valley of northern Pakistan. The Indus region, which covers most of the present-day Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic (7000–4300 BCE) site of Mehrgarh, and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation, including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.

Following the decline of the Indus Valley civilisation, semi-nomadic Indo-European Aryans migrated into the Indian subcontinent around 2000 BCE, perhaps by way of the Khyber Pass. They fused with the indigenous Harappan culture of the Indus Valley, and elements of the pre-Aryan spiritual traditions were assimilated into the developing Vedic tradition. This cultural milieu shaped the Gandhara civilization, which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting trade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilisations. By the early Vedic period, parts of the Indus region in present-day Pakistan were populated by numerous tribes that were beginning to coalesce into chieftain-led clans and early kingdoms. During this period, the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.

Classical period

The western regions of Pakistan became part of Achaemenid Empire around 517 BCE. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region by defeating various local rulers, most notably, the King Porus, at Jhelum. Among the major powers that ruled the region were the Mauryas (322–185 BCE), during which Ashoka the Great extended the empire. The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BCE), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in the 6th century BCE. The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and was also recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE. At its zenith, the Rai dynasty (489–632 CE) ruled Sindh and the surrounding territories.

Medieval period

The Arab conqueror Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh and some regions of Punjab in 711 CE. The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid. The early medieval period (642–1219 CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region. Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region of Pakistan was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional population to Islam. Upon the defeat of the Turk and Hindu Shahi dynasties which governed the Kafirs, Gandhara, and western Punjab in the 7th to 11th centuries CE, several successive Muslim empires ruled over the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE).

The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region. In the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during the Mughal period were Multan, Lahore, Peshawar and Thatta, which were chosen as the site of impressive Mughal buildings. In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire. In the 18th century, the slow disintegration of the Mughal Empire was hastened by the emergence of the rival powers like the Maratha Empire and later the Sikh Empire, as well as invasions by Nader Shah from Iran in 1739 and the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan in 1759. The growing political power of the British in Bengal had not yet reached the territories of modern Pakistan.

Colonial rule

Main articles: British India, British Raj, Aligarh Movement, and Two-nation theory

None of modern Pakistan was under British rule until 1839 when Karachi, a small fishing village governed by Talpurs of Sindh with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was taken, and used as an enclave with a port and military base for the First Afghan War that ensued. The remainder of Sindh was acquired in 1843, and subsequently, through a series of wars and treaties, the East India Company, and later, after the post-Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1858), direct rule by Queen Victoria of the British Empire, acquired most of the region. Key conflicts included those against the Baloch Talpur dynasty, resolved by the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh, the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849), and the Anglo–Afghan Wars (1839–1919). By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the British Indian Empire, and remained so until independence in 1947.

Under British rule, modern Pakistan was primarily divided into the Sind Division, Punjab Province, and the Baluchistan Agency. The region also included various princely states, with the largest being Bahawalpur.

An important uprising against the British in the region was the Indian Rebellion of 1857, known at the time as the Sepoy Mutiny. Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam resulted in significant tension in British India, leading to religious violence. The language controversy further exacerbated tensions between Hindus and Muslims. A Muslim intellectual movement, led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to counter the Hindu renaissance, advocated for the two-nation theory and led to the establishment of the All-India Muslim League in 1906.

In March 1929, in response to the Nehru Report, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, issued his fourteen points, which included proposals to safeguard the interests of the Muslim minority in a united India. These proposals were rejected. In his 29 December 1930 address, Allama Iqbal advocated the amalgamation of Muslim-majority states in North-West India, including Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan. The perception that Congress-led British provincial governments neglected the Muslim League from 1937 to 1939 motivated Jinnah and other Muslim League leaders to embrace the two-nation theory. This led to the adoption of the Lahore Resolution of 1940, presented by Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Haque, also known as the Pakistan Resolution.

By 1942, Britain faced considerable strain during World War II, with India directly threatened by Japanese forces. Britain had pledged voluntary independence for India in exchange for support during the war. However, this pledge included a clause stating that no part of British India would be compelled to join the resulting dominion, which could be interpreted as support for an independent Muslim nation. Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement, demanding an immediate end to British rule. In contrast, the Muslim League chose to support the UK's war efforts, thereby nurturing the possibility of establishing a Muslim nation.

Independence

Further information: Indian independence movement and Partition of India

The 1946 elections saw the Muslim League secure 90 percent of the Muslim seats, supported by the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. This forced the Indian National Congress, initially skeptical of the League's representation of Indian Muslims, to acknowledge its significance. Jinnah's emergence as the voice of the Indian Muslims, compelled the British to consider their stance, despite their reluctance to partition India. In a final attempt to prevent partition, they proposed the Cabinet Mission Plan.

As the Cabinet Mission failed, the British announced their intention to end rule by June 1948. Following rigorous discussions involving Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the All-India Muslim League, and Jawaharlal Nehru of Congress, the formal declaration to partition British India into two independent dominions—namely Pakistan and India—was issued by Mountbatten on the evening of 3 June 1947. In Mountbatten's oval office, the prime ministers of around a dozen major princely states gathered to receive their copies of the plan before its worldwide broadcast. At 7:00 P.M., All India Radio transmitted the public announcement, starting with the viceroy's address, followed by individual speeches from Nehru, and Jinnah. The founder of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah concluded his address with the slogan Pakistan Zindabad (Long Live Pakistan).

As the United Kingdom agreed to the partitioning of India, the modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in 1366 of the Islamic calendar, a holy time regarded as auspicious and noted for its religious importance). This new nation amalgamated the Muslim-majority eastern and northwestern regions of British India, comprising the provinces of Balochistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab, and Sindh.

Post-independence

Main articles: History of Pakistan (1947–present) and Dominion of Pakistan

After independence in 1947, Jinnah, the President of the Muslim League, became Pakistan's first Governor-General and the first President-Speaker of the Parliament, but he died of tuberculosis on 11 September 1948. Meanwhile, Pakistan's founding fathers agreed to appoint Liaquat Ali Khan, the secretary-general of the party, the nation's first Prime Minister. From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations, and had two monarchs before it became a republic.

The creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders including Lord Mountbatten. Mountbatten expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan. Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan. When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied 'most probably'.

"You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed – that has nothing to do with the business of the State."

— Muhammad Ali Jinnah's first speech to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.

Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected Deobandi alim (scholar) who held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i-Islami played key roles in advocating for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi insisted that the Constituent Assembly declare the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the shariah in Pakistan.

The efforts of Jamaat-i-Islami and the ulama led to the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. This resolution, described by Liaquat Ali Khan as the second most significant step in Pakistan's history, affirmed that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust". It was later included as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.

Democracy faced setbacks due to the martial law imposed by President Iskander Mirza, who was succeeded by General Ayub Khan. After adopting a presidential system in 1962, Pakistan witnessed significant growth until the second war with India in 1965, resulting in an economic downturn and widespread public discontent in 1967. In 1969, President Yahya Khan consolidated control, but faced a devastating cyclone in East Pakistan resulting in 500,000 deaths.

In 1970, Pakistan conducted its first democratic elections since independence, intending to transition from military rule to democracy. However, after the East Pakistani Awami League emerged victorious over the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Yahya Khan and the military refused to transfer power. This led to Operation Searchlight, a military crackdown, and eventually sparked the war of liberation by Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan, described in West Pakistan as a civil war rather than a liberation struggle.

Independent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period. In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, preemptive strikes on India by Pakistan's air force, navy, and marines sparked a conventional war in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh.

Yahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as president; the country worked towards promulgating its constitution and putting the country on the road to democracy. In 1972 Pakistan embarked on an ambitious plan to develop its nuclear deterrence capability with the goal of preventing any foreign invasion; the country's first nuclear power plant was inaugurated in that same year. India's first nuclear test in 1974 gave Pakistan additional justification to accelerate its nuclear program.

Democracy ended with a military coup in 1977 against the leftist PPP, which saw General Zia-ul-Haq become the president in 1978. From 1977 to 1988, President Zia's corporatisation and economic Islamisation initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia. While building up the country's nuclear program, increasing Islamisation, and the rise of a homegrown conservative philosophy, Pakistan helped subsidise and distribute US resources to factions of the mujahideen against the USSR's intervention in communist Afghanistan. Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province became a base for the anti-Soviet Afghan fighters, with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing a significant role in encouraging and organising the 'jihad'.

President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the country's first female Prime Minister. The PPP was followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)), and over the next decade the leaders of the two parties fought for power, alternating in office. This period is marked by prolonged stagflation, political instability, corruption, misgovernment, geopolitical rivalry with India, and the clash of left wing-right wing ideologies. As PML (N) secured a supermajority in elections in 1997, Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testings, as a retaliation to the second nuclear tests conducted by India in May 1998.

Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil district led to the Kargil War of 1999, and turmoil in civil-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf to take over through a bloodless coup d'état. Musharraf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to 2002 and as president from 2001 to 2008—a period of enlightenment, social liberalism, extensive economic reforms, and direct involvement in the US-led war on terrorism. By its own financial calculations, Pakistan's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to $118 billion, over eighty one thousand casualties, and more than 1.8 million displaced civilians.

The National Assembly historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007. After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP secured the most votes in the elections of 2008, appointing party member Yusuf Raza Gilani as Prime Minister. Threatened with impeachment, President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by Asif Ali Zardari. Clashes with the judicature prompted Gilani's disqualification from the Parliament and as the Prime Minister in June 2012. The general election held in 2013 saw the PML (N) achieve victory, following which Nawaz Sharif was elected as Prime Minister for the third time. In 2018, PTI won the general election and Imran Khan became the 22nd Prime Minister. In April 2022, Shehbaz Sharif was elected as prime minister, after Imran Khan lost a no-confidence vote. During 2024 general election, PTI-backed independents became the largest bloc, but Shehbaz Sharif was elected prime minister for a second term, as a result of a coalition between PML (N) and PPPP.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Pakistan, Environment of Pakistan, Climate of Pakistan, Extreme weather records in Pakistan, List of tropical cyclones in Pakistan, and List of beaches in Pakistan

Pakistan has a rich and varied landscape, from tall mountains to wide plains and long coastlines. It covers 881,913 km² and shares borders with Afghanistan, China, India, and Iran. The country is known for its beautiful northern mountains, including the Karakoram range, where K2, one of the world's highest peaks, is located.

The country's climate changes from tropical in the south to temperate in the north. Pakistan has four seasons: winter, spring, summer, and autumn. The Indus River and its tributaries support fertile plains, while deserts and forests also exist. Pakistan is home to many different kinds of plants and animals, from birds and mammals to reptiles and insects, though some species face threats from habitat loss and hunting.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Pakistan, Politics of Pakistan, and Elections in Pakistan

Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal republic, with Islam as the state religion. The military has often played a big role in politics. Over time, Pakistan has had many changes in its government, including times when military leaders took control.

Today, Pakistan has a multi-party system with a parliament that helps balance the different parts of the government. The country’s politics mix ideas like socialism, conservatism, and the third way. The main political parties are the Pakistan Muslim League (N), the Pakistani People's Party, and Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf.

Role of Islam

Pakistan was created as a home for Muslims, and Islam is very important in the country. The government’s laws are meant to follow Islamic teachings from the Quran and Sunnah. Special courts and committees help make sure laws match these teachings.

Administrative units

Main article: Administrative units of Pakistan

Pakistan has four provinces: Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and Balochistan. There are also three areas: Islamabad Capital Territory, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Kashmir. These areas have their own local governments.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan

Pakistan works to have good relationships with other countries. It has strong ties with China and tries to support other Muslim nations. Pakistan also deals with long-standing issues, like the Kashmir conflict with India.

Military

Pakistan has a big and active armed forces, including the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The military has been involved in many conflicts, especially with India. Pakistan also helps with international peacekeeping and has taken part in many United Nations missions.

Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Pakistan

See also: Pakistani Intelligence Community

Pakistan has many police forces, one for each province, that work to keep people safe. There are also special units that handle serious crimes and terrorism.

Human rights

Main articles: Human rights in Pakistan and LGBT rights in Pakistan

Pakistan faces challenges with human rights. Issues include corruption, limits on free speech, and problems with how the law treats certain groups. There are also concerns about practices like honour killings and acid attacks. The government has made some laws to protect people, but many issues still need attention.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Pakistan and Economic history of Pakistan

Further information: Real estate in Pakistan, Information technology in Pakistan, and Banking in Pakistan

See also: Pakistan and the International Monetary Fund

Pakistan’s economy is ranked 27th in the world by purchasing power parity and 42nd by nominal GDP. It is a developing country with a strong potential to grow into one of the world’s largest economies. The country depends heavily on agriculture, which supports many industries.

In 2025, Pakistan’s nominal GDP was about US$410.5 billion, with a GDP based on purchasing power parity at US$1.67 trillion. About 44.7% of people live below the international poverty line. The country has a large workforce and receives significant money from citizens working abroad. Pakistan’s economy includes strong sectors such as agriculture, industry, and services, with tourism also playing a role.

Infrastructure

See also: Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan

Pakistan was recognized for its strong infrastructure development in South Asia during meetings of the IMF and World Bank in 2016.

Power and energy

Main articles: Nuclear power in Pakistan, Energy in Pakistan, and Electricity sector in Pakistan

Pakistan operates several nuclear power plants, which supply part of the country's electricity. Most electricity comes from fossil fuels like oil and natural gas, with hydroelectric power also playing a big role. Renewable energy, such as from the sun and wind, is growing, and Pakistan plans to produce much more of it in the future.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Pakistan

Pakistan has many roads, including modern motorways that connect big cities and ports. Trains are less used today, but there are plans for new metro systems in cities like Lahore and Karachi. The country also has many airports, with Karachi and Lahore being the busiest for international travel.

Science and technology

Main articles: Science and technology in Pakistan and List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries

Pakistan has made important contributions to science. A Pakistani scientist, Abdus Salam, won a Nobel Prize for his work in physics. The country has its own space program and launched its first satellite in 1990. Today, Pakistan is active in many areas of science and technology, including space research and information technology.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Pakistan

Further information: Overseas Pakistani

Pakistan has a rich and varied population. Since its independence, many people have moved to cities, especially in the south where Karachi, along the Indus River, is a major hub. Cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, and Islamabad are also important centers.

The country is home to many different groups of people and languages. Urdu and English are the official languages, but there are thought to be between 75 and 85 languages spoken overall. The largest groups include Punjabis, Pashtuns, Sindhis, and Saraikis, among others. Many people from nearby countries, such as India and Afghanistan, have also settled in Pakistan, especially in cities like Karachi.

Main article: Urbanisation in Pakistan

Main articles: Languages of Pakistan and Ethnic groups of Pakistan

See also: Pakistanis

Main article: Immigration to Pakistan

Main article: Overseas Pakistani

Main article: Religion in Pakistan

Main article: Islam in Pakistan

Main article: Hinduism in Pakistan

Main article: Christianity in Pakistan

Main article: Education in Pakistan

See also: Higher Education Commission (Pakistan) and Rankings of universities in Pakistan

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Pakistan, British heritage of Pakistan, and Public holidays in Pakistan

Civil society in Pakistan values traditional customs and Islamic practices. Families often live together in extended groups, though nuclear families are becoming more common. People usually wear the Shalwar Kameez, with men also wearing trousers, jeans, and shirts. Important festivals include Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Azha, Ramadan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali.

Pakistani architecture has four main styles: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. Ancient cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa show early urban life. Islamic architecture includes famous buildings such as the Badshahi Mosque and Lahore Fort. Modern structures like the Faisal Mosque reflect Pakistan’s contemporary identity.

The Shalwar Kameez is the national dress, worn everywhere in Pakistan. People also enjoy a variety of fabrics and styles. Fashion events like PFDC Fashion Week showcase both traditional and modern designs.

Pakistan has a rich literary tradition in many languages, including Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, and English. Famous poets and writers have shaped its literary identity. The National Library helps share these works with people.

Pakistan has many media outlets, including television and newspapers. The film industry, known as Lollywood, produces popular movies. Urdu dramas are widely watched, and music ranges from traditional styles to modern mixes.

Pakistani food comes from Mughal royal kitchens and includes spices like garlic, ginger, and chili. Common dishes are Roti, curry, and rice. Lassi and black tea are popular drinks, and Sohan halwa is a favorite sweet.

Main article: Sport in Pakistan

Cricket is the most popular sport, with Pakistan winning major tournaments. Field hockey is the national sport, and the country has achieved great success in it. Other sports like football, squash, and polo are also enjoyed.