Indian annexation of Goa

The Indian annexation of Goa was when the Republic of India took control of the Portuguese Indian areas of Goa, Daman and Diu in December 1961. Before this, these places had been ruled by Portugal for over 450 years.

Many people in India felt it was important to bring Goa back into India, as they believed it was historically part of their country.

The Indian government decided to use its army, navy, and air force in an operation called Operation Vijay, which means "Victory" in Sanskrit. The fighting lasted for two days, and after that, India successfully took control of Goa. This action was praised by many in India, but Portugal saw it as an attack on their land.

After the fighting ended, Goa was managed by a military leader until a civilian government was set up in June 1962. This marked the end of Portuguese rule and the beginning of Goa being part of India.

Background

After India became independent from the British Empire in August 1947, Portugal still kept control of some areas on the Indian subcontinent. These areas were Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Together, they were called the State of India.

Goa, Daman and Diu covered about 1,540 square miles (4,000 km²) and had many people living there. Most people there were Hindu (61%), some were Christian (37%), and a few were Muslim (2%). The main work there was farming, but in the 1940s and 1950s, mining of iron ore and manganese also grew.

Portugal was ruled by a government called the Estado Novo, which strongly wanted to keep its colonies. This government thought its faraway lands were part of Portugal itself. Many people in Goa wanted to be part of India. Leaders like Tristão de Bragança Cunha started groups to fight for this idea. They used peaceful ways to protest at first.

India tried many times to talk with Portugal about taking back these areas, but Portugal refused. India then made it harder for people and goods to move between Goa and Portugal. In 1954, groups helped by India took over Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Over time, tensions grew until India decided to take action to bring Goa into India.

Events preceding the hostilities

Indian military build-up

The Indian government got ready to take Goa from Portuguese control. Lieutenant-General Chaudhari of the Indian Army organized troops and planes. The Indian Air Force got planes ready to help. The Indian Navy sent ships to the coast of Goa.

Portuguese mandate

In 1960, some Portuguese leaders said fighting India would be hard. But the Portuguese leader told Goa to resist and hope for help from other countries. The leader of Goa chose not to fight to avoid losing lives and gave up the next day after the invasion started.

Portuguese military preparations

Portugal had built up forces in Goa since 1954, but they were too small to fight India’s big army. The Portuguese had plans to destroy bridges and roads, but they were not ready.

Navy

The Portuguese Navy in Goa had only one main ship and a few small boats. When Portugal tried to send more ships, Egypt would not let them pass through the Suez Canal.

Ground forces

Portuguese soldiers in Goa were in several groups, but many were not well trained. Security forces helped with defense but were spread out.

Air defence

The Portuguese Air Force had almost no planes in Goa. There were two civilian planes but no fighter jets. Some old anti-aircraft guns were hidden, but they were not very useful.

Portuguese civilian evacuation

When things got tense, many people in Goa wanted to leave. On December 9, a ship took about 700 people away. More people left by plane after the fighting started.

Indian reconnaissance operations

India watched Goa’s coast and air fields very closely. On December 17, an Indian plane flew over Goa and was shot at but got away. The Indian aircraft carrier INS Vikrant stayed nearby to stop any other countries from helping Goa.

Commencement of hostilities

Military actions in Goa

On 11 December 1961, Indian Army troops moved into Goa to take important places like Panaji and Mormugão. The main attack on Panaji came from the north and the east, with a smaller attack from the south.

Fighting began on 17 December when Indian troops took the town of Maulição. Over the next few days, Indian forces moved from different directions. One group went towards Ponda, another towards Panaji, and a third group headed towards Tivim.

By 18 December, Indian forces reached Panaji and captured Fort Aguada. Other Indian units came from the east, facing little resistance but destroyed bridges. They went on towards Margão and Mormugão, where they met stronger resistance but finally took the area.

Military actions in Daman

Daman was attacked on 18 December by Indian troops who moved in four phases to capture the area. Despite some resistance and air raids, Indian forces secured most of Daman by the end of the day, though the airfield and parts of the city held out longer.

Military actions in Diu

Diu was attacked on 18 December from two directions. Indian forces faced strong resistance and had to retreat several times before air and naval support helped them move forward. By 19 December, Portuguese forces in Diu surrendered after repeated attacks and being unable to get support from Goa or Lisbon.

Air raids over Goa

The first Indian air raid on 18 December targeted Dabolim Airport, destroying the runway but leaving other structures untouched. A second raid that same day also focused on the airport. A third raid targeted a wireless station at Bambolim. Later, some friendly fire incidents occurred when Indian aircraft accidentally attacked their own troops.

Storming of Anjidiv Island

Anjidiv Island, a small area near Goa, was attacked by Indian marines on 18 December. After a hard battle, the island was secured the next day. Portuguese defenders were captured, though a few managed to hide and were caught over the following days.

Naval battle at Mormugão harbour

On 18 December, a Portuguese ship in Mormugão Harbour fought with Indian frigates. The Portuguese ship was heavily outgunned and eventually ran aground. The crew surrendered the next day, and the ship was later sold for scrap.

Military actions in Daman

Ground attack on Daman

Daman was attacked by Indian forces on 18 December. The Indian troops moved in four phases to capture the area, facing some resistance but eventually securing most of Daman by the end of the day. Air raids and naval actions also supported the ground forces.

Daman air raids

In Daman, Indian aircraft flew many missions to attack Portuguese positions, supporting the ground forces.

Naval action at Daman

A Portuguese patrol boat tried to escape but failed and ended up in Pakistan after losing contact with Goa.

Military actions in Diu

Ground attack on Diu

Diu was attacked on 18 December from two directions. Indian forces faced strong resistance and had to retreat several times before air and naval support helped them move forward. By 19 December, Portuguese forces in Diu surrendered.

The Diu air raids

Indian aircraft attacked Diu continuously on 18 December, destroying fortifications, the airfield, and other key targets. The air attacks helped force the Portuguese to surrender.

Naval action at Diu

An Indian cruiser shelled Diu Fortress, and a Portuguese patrol boat was attacked and forced to abandon ship after an air attack. The crew became prisoners of war.

UN attempts at ceasefire

In December 1961, Portugal asked the Security Council to talk about Goa. Some countries agreed, while others did not.

Portugal said they wanted to stay peaceful but India was challenging them. India thought Goa should be part of their country. The United States criticized India for using force, while the Soviet Union said it was India's own problem.

The Security Council tried to make a plan to stop the fighting, but they could not agree. Different groups had different ideas, but none were accepted by everyone. This showed it was very hard to find a solution.

Portuguese surrender

By the evening of December 18, most of Goa was controlled by Indian forces. Many Portuguese soldiers were at a military base near Vasco da Gama, getting ready to defend the area. But the leader of Portugal in Goa chose to stop fighting. He thought continuing the fight would hurt many people.

The official surrender happened in a ceremony on December 19. This ended over 450 years of Portuguese control in Goa. Many Portuguese soldiers were taken safely by the Indian Army. The fighting lasted two days and caused some losses on both sides.

Those Indian soldiers who helped in this operation received special medals for their service.

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Portuguese actions post-hostilities

After Goa became part of India, Portugal ended its diplomatic ties with India and did not recognize Goa as Indian land. Portugal offered to give citizenship to people from Goa who wanted to move to Portugal instead of staying in India. Later, this offer was only for people born before December 19, 1961.

Portugal's leader, Salazar, offered a reward for capturing an Indian commander. In Lisbon, people held quiet marches and had quiet celebrations. Salazar spoke to the Portuguese National Assembly and said Portugal could not give up its land or people. He also said other countries did not help Portugal during this time.

Portugal used its radio to ask people in Goa to resist Indian rule. They tried to form secret groups and planned attacks to cause trouble at ports. In 1964, some Portuguese agents carried out bombings in Goa.

Finally, in 1974, after big changes in Portugal, the country recognized Goa as part of India. A treaty was signed in late 1974, and in 1992, a Portuguese president visited Goa for the first time after it became part of India.

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Prisoners of war

After they gave up, the Portuguese soldiers were kept by the Indian Army in their own military camps. By January 1962, most of these soldiers were moved to a new camp with better conditions.

Some Portuguese people who were in Goa at the time were taken to Mumbai and then sent back to Portugal. However, about 3,300 Portuguese soldiers stayed as prisoners in Goa.

During their time as prisoners, many local Goans visited them, bringing food, drinks, and other supplies. This surprised the Indian military authorities, who at first limited these visits.

The captivity lasted for six months. By May 1962, most of the prisoners were sent back to Portugal, first flying to Karachi, Pakistan, and then traveling by ship to Lisbon.

International reactions

Support

African states

Before this happened, some people wondered what other countries would do. Many African countries supported India because they used to be colonies too. For example, Ghana called it the “Liberation of Goa” and hoped other Portuguese areas in Africa would also be free. A leader from Mozambique said they fully supported using force against Portugal.

In the summer of 1961, a small Portuguese fort called São João Baptista de Ajudá was taken over by Dahomey, which is now Benin. After Portugal changed its government in 1974, it recognized this takeover.

Liberia said Goa was not really Portuguese and criticized Portugal for controlling India for over 500 years.

Soviet Union

Leonid Brezhnev, who would later lead the Soviet Union, was visiting India at the time and spoke in support of India’s actions. The Soviet Union also blocked a United Nations request to condemn India for taking Goa.

Arab states

Arab countries, such as the United Arab Republic, Morocco, and Tunisia, supported India. They said India had been patient but had to act because Portugal was not listening. Other Arab nations also expressed their support.

Ceylon

Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) fully supported India. The Prime Minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, said that transport for Portuguese troops in Goa would not be allowed to use Ceylon’s ports or airports. Ceylon also helped India by supporting a United Nations resolution in favor of India’s actions.

Indonesia

Indonesia supported India and called it a fight against colonialism. They said India, a peaceful country, had to use force because there was no other way to end colonialism.

Condemnation

United States

The United States disapproved of India’s actions. Adlai Stevenson spoke at the United Nations, saying India should pull its forces out of Goa. The US tried to reduce aid to India because of this, though President John F. Kennedy opposed this.

Some American newspapers criticized India, saying the country that talked about peace was acting like any other country would.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom was disappointed. While they understood why local Indians wanted Goa to join India, they said using force was wrong. The leader of the opposition in the UK also regretted India’s choice to use force.

Netherlands

The Netherlands was unhappy that India, a country that always supported peace, had used force. They worried that this might encourage Indonesia to attack another area.

Brazil

Brazil strongly supported Portugal. The Brazilian president said that seventy million Brazilians could never accept violence against Goa.

Pakistan

Pakistan called India’s actions unfair. They said India had double standards and was being aggressive. Pakistan also mentioned the situation in Kashmir.

Ambivalence

People's Republic of China

China said it supported people fighting against colonialism but also made comments suggesting India’s leader, Nehru, was trying to improve his popularity by taking action against Goa.

The Catholic Church

After the annexation, there were changes in the leadership of the Catholic Church in Goa, but the Vatican did not publicly react at the time.

Legality

Quincy Wright wrote that India's actions showed a difference in how the East and West see UN law. After India became independent in 1947, it knew Portugal controlled Goa. But when India took Goa, it said colonial control was not legal. This idea matched rules from the twentieth century, but not rules from the sixteenth century.

Many countries understood why India did this, but they did not think it was legal. India's highest court said Goa was part of India and did not follow old rules about occupied lands. In 1974, Portugal agreed in a treaty that India was in charge of Goa. Some experts say using force to take over a place is always wrong. Others think because the people of Goa wanted to be part of India, this changed things, but the first takeover was still not allowed by the rules. Some Indians believed they were allowed to act because Goa was really part of India, not Portugal. They also pointed to the UN Charter, which says people have the right to decide which country they belong to.