Congress of Berlin

The Congress of Berlin was a meeting from June 13 to July 13, 1878. It happened to change rules set by an earlier agreement between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. That agreement ended a war but caused problems. It gave Russia too much power in a place called the Balkans.

Anton von Werner's painting, Congress of Berlin (1881), depicting the final meeting at the Reich Chancellery on 13 July 1878. Bismarck (representing Germany) is shown in the centre, between Gyula Andrássy (Austria-Hungary) and Pyotr Shuvalov (Russia). On the left are Alajos Károlyi (Austria-Hungary), Alexander Gorchakov (Russia) (seated) and Benjamin Disraeli (Great Britain). On the far right is the Ottoman delegation; showing from left to right, Sadullah Pasha, Karatheodori Pasha, and Mehmed Ali Pasha.

Several important countries joined the Congress. These were Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Germany. Leaders from Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro also came. The goal was to keep peace and stop wars by changing borders and rules.

The Congress made a new agreement called the Treaty of Berlin. This treaty changed borders in many places. For example, Austria-Hungary took control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Britain took control of Cyprus. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro became independent countries. This agreement helped stop war at the time, but many people were unhappy. Some countries felt they did not get enough land, and tensions kept growing in the Balkans for years.

Background

Pro-Greek ethnic map of the Balkans by Ioannis Gennadius, published by the English cartographer E. Stanford in 1877

Before the Congress of Berlin, many people in Russia and the Balkans wanted to unite all the Balkan Slavs under one ruler. This idea, called Pan-Slavism, aimed to create a big state led by Russia. If this happened, Russia would gain control of important waterways like the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus.

The Treaty of San Stefano had created a large area called "Greater Bulgaria," which many opposed because it showed Russia's desire to control southeastern Europe. Different groups, like Pan-Germanism and Pan-Italianism, also had dreams of uniting their own people. The main question at the Congress of Berlin was how to end Ottoman rule in the Balkans and what that would mean for the future.

Great powers in the Balkans

The Balkans were an important area where big European countries tried to gain influence in the second half of the 19th century. Russia wanted to protect people who shared its culture and also to gain more control over the Mediterranean Sea. Britain wanted to stop Russia from becoming too powerful.

Russia and Austria-Hungary, two countries very interested in the Balkans, were allies with Germany through the League of Three Emperors. This group was created to support monarchies across Europe. Because of this alliance, Germany had to decide which of its friends to support during discussions about the Balkans. This decision would shape Europe’s future.

When fighting broke out in the Serbian–Ottoman War and the Herzegovina Uprising, Russia felt pressure to help the Serbs, whom they saw as their allies. Russia later agreed that Austria-Hungary could stay in control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was decided in the Budapest Convention of 1877. This agreement affected the future of the region.

Treaty of San Stefano

Main article: Treaty of San Stefano

Bulgaria after the Conference of Constantinople, 1876

After a rebellion in Bulgaria and a war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Russia freed many lands in Europe from Ottoman rule. The Ottomans recognized Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia as independent countries, and each gained more land. Russia also created a new country called the Principality of Bulgaria, which was mostly independent but still linked to the Ottoman ruler. This made Russia very powerful in the Balkans, which worried other European countries.

Because of these changes, Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, and Germany wanted to meet to discuss how to share the lands in the Balkans more fairly. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck called this meeting, known as the Congress of Berlin. The meeting was held in Berlin from June 13 to July 13, 1878. Countries that attended included Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire. The Congress changed many parts of an earlier agreement called the Treaty of San Stefano, reshaping the eastern part of Europe.

Other powers' fear of Russian influence

The leaders at the Congress of Berlin were worried about a movement called pan-Slavism. Countries like Berlin and Vienna feared that Slavic people might rise up against their rulers. Britain and France were also concerned because they wanted to keep control over areas like Egypt and Palestine. They did not want Russia to become too powerful.

Ethnic composition map of the Balkans by the German-English cartographer Ernst Georg Ravenstein of 1870

Russia had created an independent area called Bulgaria under the Treaty of San Stefano. This worried Britain because the new area included parts of Macedonia and gave Russia access to important waterways like the Dardanelles Straits. Britain saw this as a threat to their power in the Mediterranean Sea. To protect their interests, Britain made a secret agreement with the Ottoman Empire to control the island of Cyprus before the Congress even started. This agreement shaped Britain's position during the talks.

Bismarck as host

The Congress of Berlin was an important meeting between Alexander Gorchakov of Russia and Otto von Bismarck of Germany. They convinced other European countries that making Bulgaria independent would help reduce problems from the weakening Ottoman Empire. Erich Eyck said that Bismarck agreed with Russia that Turkish control over Christian areas like Bulgaria caused unrest. He used the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 to show that tensions were rising in the area.

Bismarck’s main goal at the Congress of Berlin was to keep Germany strong without causing trouble. He did not want to pick between Russia and Austria as allies, which could break the League of the Three Emperors. Instead, he worked to show that dividing the Balkans would bring more peace. Bismarck liked peace unless it affected Germany directly. Because Germany was doing well, he did not want any fights among big European powers that might change this balance. He said Germany was neutral at the Congress, which helped him lead the talks carefully.

Most European leaders expected big speeches and drama, like at the Congress of Vienna, but they were surprised. Bismarck, unhappy about holding the meeting in hot summer weather, had little patience and stopped any showy behavior. Representatives from smaller Balkan areas were hardly allowed to join the main discussions, which were mostly among leaders of the large powers.

According to Henry Kissinger, the Congress marked a change in Bismarck’s Realpolitik. As Germany grew too strong to stay alone, he had previously relied on Russia’s friendship. But now, he started building ties with many other countries instead.

Legacy

The Congress of Berlin changed the lands in the Balkans. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro became independent countries. Russia took back a region called Southern Bessarabia. The large Bulgarian state was split into two parts: the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. Both could govern themselves but were still under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia was unhappy because it did not get the benefits it expected. Some other countries, like Italy and Greece, were also not satisfied. The decisions made at the Congress led to more problems later, including the Balkan Wars and the First World War. The area stayed tense for many years.

Internal opposition to Andrássy's objectives

Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina got the right to place troops in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which stayed under Ottoman control. This kept Serbia and Montenegro apart and gave Austro-Hungarian forces a way to reach Salonika.

Some leaders in Hungary disagreed strongly. On 28 September 1878, the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, said he would leave if the army, supported by the Archduke Albert, moved toward Salonika. Later, in a meeting of the Hungarian Parliament on 5 November 1878, some members tried to remove Andrássy from his job, saying he broke rules with his actions during the crisis and the takeover of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The attempt failed, with the vote ending 179 to 95. Many opponents had serious complaints about Andrássy’s decisions.