History of Ireland

The history of Ireland is a long and rich story that began thousands of years ago. The first people arrived on the island around 34,000 years ago, and by 7,000 BC, early humans known as Homo sapiens were living there. Over time, many different cultures, including the Celtic people, settled in Ireland.

Important changes came with the arrival of Christianity in the late 4th century CE, which brought writing and new ways of life. Later, seafaring people from Scandinavia, known as Vikings, settled along the coasts and started towns. In 1169, the Norman invasion began many years of English influence in Ireland.

In more recent times, Ireland faced many challenges. During the Great Famine in the 1840s, terrible conditions caused many deaths and made many people leave their homes. In 1922, after a long struggle, most of Ireland became independent as the Irish Free State, but six counties in the northeast stayed part of the United Kingdom. This led to many years of conflict, known as the Troubles, until peace efforts brought hope with the Good Friday Agreement in 1998.

Prehistory (10,500 BC–600 BC)

Main articles: Prehistoric Ireland and Protohistory of Ireland

Stone Age to Bronze Age

We learn about ancient Ireland from old stories, poems, and digs in the ground. One old bone found in a cave shows humans might have lived in Ireland as early as 10,500 BC. The first people who definitely lived there were hunter-gatherers who arrived around 7900 BC. They lived by hunting and gathering until about 4000 BC, when farming began. This brought new tools, houses, and big stone tombs.

Around 2000 BC, the Bronze Age began, bringing beautiful gold and bronze items. People started burying their dead in small stone boxes or mounds. Later, they often burned their dead and put their remains in large pots.

Iron Age (600 BC–400 AD)

The Iron Age in Ireland began around 600 BC. During this time, small groups of people who spoke Celtic languages moved into Ireland. By about 300 BC, special items showing a Celtic style called La Tène could be found in parts of the island. Over time, the people of Ireland mixed their own traditions with these new ideas, creating Gaelic culture. By the fifth century, big kingdoms such as Tuisceart, Airgialla, Ulaid, Mide, Laigin, Mumhain, and Cóiced Ol nEchmacht began to form.

Around 60 AD, the Romans invaded a place called Anglesey in Wales, which caused some worry in Ireland. Some believe the Romans came close to Ireland but never ruled it. Ireland was known to the Romans as Hibernia. Even though Ireland was not part of the Roman Empire, Roman ideas and stories about the island spread far and wide. Some experts think that groups or maybe even Roman soldiers may have tried to invade Ireland around 100 AD, but the exact details are unclear.

Early Christian Ireland (400–795)

During this time, Ireland changed a lot. Old groups were replaced by new families who led kingdoms. Some Irish people even started new places in Britain. It is believed that Christianity came to Ireland during this period, maybe through traders or others coming home.

Tradition says that in the year 432, St. Patrick came to Ireland to share Christianity with the people. He helped write down Irish laws and brought the Roman alphabet, which let monks save many Irish stories. Monasteries grew and became places where people learned. Irish monks studied and shared knowledge with others from far away. They made beautiful works like the Book of Kells and special stone crosses.

Early medieval and Viking era (795–1169)

The first recorded Viking raid in Ireland was in 795 AD. The Vikings came from Norway and looted parts of the island. These early raids were small and quick. The Vikings were good sailors and used longships to travel. By the early 840s, they began to settle along the coasts, especially in Dublin.

In 852, the Vikings built a fortress in Dublin Bay, which helped Dublin become an important trading place. They traded many goods and shared new ideas with Ireland. Over time, the Vikings and Irish people mixed, creating a group called the Gall-Gaels. The Vikings and Irish kings fought many battles. A big battle happened in 1014 when Irish leader Brian Boru defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf. After this, the Viking power weakened, but the towns they founded kept growing and became important for trade.

Anglo-Norman Ireland (1169–1536)

Arrival of the Normans

Main article: Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland

By the 12th century, Ireland had many small kingdoms ruled by different leaders. One leader, King Diarmait Mac Murchada of Leinster, lost his land and asked for help. He went to Aquitaine and got help from Henry II. In 1167, he brought Norman knights to Ireland. These knights helped Diarmait get his kingdom back. He chose his son-in-law, Richard de Clare, called Strongbow, to be next in line. This made King Henry worried, so in 1177, Prince John Lackland became Lord of Ireland under their father Henry II of England.

With support from the Pope, Henry landed in Waterford in 1171, becoming the first King of England to visit Ireland. He gave control of Ireland to his son John, who later became King John of England. After this, Ireland was ruled directly by the English Crown.

Lordship of Ireland

Main article: Lordship of Ireland

The Normans first controlled the east coast of Ireland and moved inward. Many smaller kings ruled different areas. King John visited Ireland in 1185 and 1210, helping to strengthen Norman control.

During the 1200s, English kings tried to reduce the power of the Norman lords in Ireland. The Norman settlers faced many attacks, which stopped them from spreading further. Over time, Irish ways of life influenced the settlers more.

Gaelic resurgence and Norman decline

By 1261, the Normans had weakened. A leader named Fineen MacCarthy defeated a Norman army at the Battle of Callann. For about 100 years, battles continued, causing damage near Dublin. During this time, Irish leaders took back much of the land they had lost.

In 1348, a disease called the Black Death came to Ireland. After the disease, Irish language and customs grew stronger again. English control shrank to a small area around Dublin, known as the Pale. By the late 1400s, England's focus shifted elsewhere, and control over Ireland weakened. The powerful Fitzgerald family, as Earl of Kildare, took charge in Ireland. The government in Dublin lost much of its power, especially after Poynings' Law in 1494.

Early modern Ireland (1536–1691)

Conquest and rebellion

Main articles: Tudor conquest of Ireland and Kingdom of Ireland

In 1536, Henry VIII of England decided to take control of Ireland. The rulers of Kildare had supported someone who opposed the English throne. After stopping a rebellion, Henry made Ireland a full kingdom in 1542. This put Ireland under English rule, but it took many years to control all of the island. During this time, many battles happened as English leaders tried to govern all of Ireland.

Wars and penal laws

The 1600s were very hard for Ireland, with many wars. In 1641, Irish Catholics rose up against English rulers. Later, a leader named Oliver Cromwell came to Ireland and fought. After these wars, many Irish Catholics lost their lands, which were given to British settlers. New laws were made that made life very difficult for Catholics.

Indentured Labour

From the 1400s to the 1800s, many Irish people, along with people from England, Scotland, and Wales, were sent far away to work. Some were sent to the Caribbean, and later to places like the American colonies and Australia. Many Irish people were treated badly and sent to places like Barbados.

Protestant ascendancy (1691–1800)

See also: Protestant Ascendancy

During this time, many people in Ireland were poor Catholic farmers with little power in politics. Some leaders became Protestant to avoid strict rules. There were two main Protestant groups: the Presbyterians in the north, and a small group of wealthy families called the Anglo-Irish, who owned most of the land.

These Anglo-Irish families had a lot of power over the economy, land, laws, and government. However, England still made the final decisions. They tried to gain more control, especially after the American colonies rebelled, but needed British troops for protection.

Ireland had hard economic times, with poor farming and trade rules that helped England more. Cold winters caused food shortages around 1740–1741. Despite these problems, Ireland stayed peaceful and its population grew.

By the late 1700s, some Anglo-Irish leaders wanted better trade with England and more independence for Ireland’s parliament. But changes were slow, especially for Catholics' rights. Some people, inspired by the French Revolution, formed a group called the United Irishmen to push for change. They tried to end British rule in 1798 but failed.

Ireland was officially a kingdom under King George III, but a British official called the Viceroy really controlled it. In the late 1700s, the British government took more control, and by 1800, Ireland’s own parliament ended with the Acts of Union.

Union with Great Britain (1801–1912)

In 1800, Ireland and Britain joined together after a protest called the Irish Rebellion of 1798. This joining, called the Acts of Union, began on January 1, 1801, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. One promise was to treat everyone fairly, no matter their religion, but this did not happen right away.

Later, laws changed so more people could vote and be part of the government. A man named Daniel O'Connell, called "The Liberator," worked to help Catholics join Parliament. By 1829, new rules let Catholics be part of Parliament, though some unfair rules still existed.

A very hard time came with the Great Irish Famine from 1845 to 1852. A sickness hurt the potatoes, which many people relied on for food. This caused many people to leave Ireland, and the population became much smaller.

There were also problems over land. For a long time, a few families from England owned most of the land and rented it to Irish farmers. This caused many issues. Later, laws helped farmers buy their own land, which improved things.

In the late 1800s, people began talking more about Ireland governing itself, called Home Rule. But it was hard to agree on. Some people in Ireland wanted to stay joined with Britain, while others wanted independence. These different ideas caused tension between groups of people.

Home Rule, Easter Rising and War of Independence (1912–1922)

Main article: Irish revolutionary period

In 1912, a plan called Home Rule was made to help Ireland govern itself. But many people in the north of Ireland, called Ulster, did not want this. When World War I began in 1914, the plan was stopped.

In 1916, a group tried to make Ireland independent in an event called the Easter Rising in Dublin. Even though not everyone supported it at first, how it ended made more people unhappy with British rule. In 1918, more Irish men were being forced to join the British Army, which also made people upset.

In elections in December 1918, a party called Sinn Féin won most seats in Ireland. In January 1919, they made their own parliament called Dáil Éireann and declared independence. This started a guerrilla war called the Irish War of Independence from 1919 to 1921. In 1921, both sides agreed to stop fighting, and in 1922, they signed a treaty. This created the Irish Free State, which later became Ireland, while Northern Ireland stayed part of the United Kingdom.

Free State and Republic (1922–present)

Main articles: History of the Republic of Ireland, Irish Free State, Republic of Ireland, and Names of the Irish state

After agreeing to leave the Union, the republican movement split into two groups. One group wanted to keep fighting for a fully independent Ireland, while the other accepted the new Irish Free State as a first step toward independence. From 1922 to 1923, these groups fought in what is called the Irish Civil War. The new government of the Irish Free State won, and this split still affects Irish politics today, especially between the two biggest political parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael.

The Irish Free State existed from 1922 to 1937 during a time when many countries in Europe had strict leaders and faced a big economic downturn in 1929. Unlike many other countries, Ireland stayed a democracy. In 1932, a group that had lost in the civil war, led by Éamon de Valera, peacefully took power by winning an election. The Free State had conservative social rules, influenced by the powerful Catholic Church.

In 1937, a new Constitution named the country Ireland. Ireland stayed neutral during World War II, which helped it avoid the war’s horrors. In 1949, Ireland left the British Commonwealth and became a republic.

In the 1960s, Ireland’s economy began to change. Free education for all children was introduced in 1968. Ireland joined the European Economic Community in 1973. The 1970s were tough economically, but reforms in the late 1980s brought strong growth, known as the Celtic Tiger. This ended in 2008 when the banking system collapsed, causing a big financial crisis. Since 2014, Ireland has grown strongly again, called the Celtic Phoenix.

Northern Ireland (1921–present)

Main article: History of Northern Ireland

"A Protestant state" (1921–1972)

In 1921, a new area called Northern Ireland was created from six counties in the northeast. For many years, it was led by leaders who wanted to stay closely linked to Britain. This caused unfair treatment for some people, leading to protests and tension. Over time, these tensions grew, and some groups used violence, making the situation harder to solve.

Direct rule (1972–1999)

For many years, leaders in Britain made decisions for Northern Ireland because local leaders could not agree. They tried different plans to help both groups live together peacefully, but these plans often failed. During this time, many people suffered from unfair treatment and violence, and it took a long time before real progress toward peace began.

Devolution and direct rule (1999–present)

In 1998, an important agreement was made to share power between different groups in Northern Ireland. This helped bring some peace, though there were still problems. Over time, more groups worked together, and weapons were put away. However, there were still times when leaders disagreed, causing pauses in sharing power. Recently, leaders have been working to rebuild trust and create a more peaceful future.

Modern Ireland

Ireland's economy grew in new ways and joined the global economy by becoming part of the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. By the 1990s, Ireland had become a modern industrial country and created wealth for its people. Farming was still important, but Ireland's factories made high-quality products. This period of growth is called the Celtic tiger.

The power of the Catholic Church in Ireland also changed. The Church did not have as much influence on daily life or politics. Younger people were less interested in Church teachings. Because of these changes, many Irish people began to question the Church's role in society. In 2011, Ireland closed its embassy to the Vatican, showing how these changes affected the country.

Flags in Ireland

The national flag of Ireland is a tricolour of green, white, and orange. The colors mean green for Irish Catholics, orange for Irish Protestants, and white for peace. The flag was first shown in public in the mid-19th century by Young Irelander Thomas Francis Meagher. After being used in the 1916 Rising, it became the national flag and was made official in 1937 with the Constitution of Ireland.

In Northern Ireland, the official flag is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom, though this is sometimes discussed. For sports, the Flag of the Four Provinces is often used to represent the whole island. In the past, other flags have included Saint Patrick's Flag, a green flag with a harp, and a blue flag with a harp.

Historiography

Further information: List of Irish historians

Ireland has many historians from Ireland, North America, and Britain who have studied its past. There are old views and new ideas that change older stories. A big focus is on Irish nationalism and its role in shaping Irish identity.

Much attention is given to the years 1912–23, a time of big changes in Ireland. Conferences since 2012 have brought together many people to discuss this important time.

Historians also look at Ireland’s connection to Britain and its role in the British Empire. New studies explore topics like women’s roles and the effects of colonialism on Ireland.

Recent research has looked more at Ireland’s trade, economy, and business, especially from the 1700s and 1800s. There is still much to learn about these areas.