History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire

Jews were an important part of the Byzantine Empire's history. The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, lasted from about the year 330 to 1453. During this time, many Jewish people lived in its cities and towns.

Jewish communities helped the empire grow by working in trade, business, and other important jobs. They kept their traditions and beliefs while also taking part in the empire's daily life. Even though there were sometimes difficult times, Jews continued to make valuable contributions to the culture, economy, and society of the Byzantine world.

Background and legal standing

After the decline of Greek-speaking Hellenistic Judaism, Jewish communities in the Byzantine Empire kept using the Greek language and adopted parts of Greek culture. The legal status of Jews in the Byzantine Empire was special. Unlike most people in the empire, Jews did not follow the Christian Eastern Orthodox faith, which was the official religion of the state church of the Byzantine Empire. They were also not usually treated the same as heretics or pagans. Instead, Jews had a legal position that was somewhere in between these groups.

The social freedom of Jews in the Byzantine Empire changed only a little over time. This status was mainly influenced by three things: the theological goal of the empire to keep Jews as a sign of Christianity’s success, the need for the government to stay in control, and how well leaders in Constantinople could enforce laws. Some Jewish communities near the borders of the empire—in places like Illyricum, Thrace, and Moesia—had their own unique traditions. These communities, while still under Byzantine laws, often lived somewhat separately from major Jewish centers like Thessaloniki or Constantinople and kept some older customs.

Foundations of the legal position of Jews: 330–404

In 212, a law called the Constitutio Antoniniana gave everyone in the Roman Empire, including Jews, the same rights. This law helped shape Jewish life in the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople was founded in 330. Jews could practice their religion if they paid a special tax called the Fiscus Judaicus. Important traditions like circumcision and worship in synagogues were allowed by law. Jewish leaders could handle some legal matters for their communities, and Jews could observe days like Shabbat and other festivals freely.

By 390, much of the land we now call Israel was part of the Byzantine Empire and was divided into three areas: Palestina Prima, Palestina Secunda, and Palestina Tertia. These areas were part of a larger region called the Diocese of the East.

Theodosian Code: 404–527

In the early years of the Byzantine Empire, Jews faced many rules that limited their roles in society. Starting in 404, they were not allowed to hold certain government jobs. By 418, Jews were banned from working in the government and the military. In 425, these rules were expanded to include all public offices.

Even with these limits, the laws still recognized that the Jewish religion was allowed to exist. Emperor Theodosius II had to balance different ideas when making rules for Jews. In 438, he had to repeat the rule about Jews not holding public jobs because it was not being followed well.

Jews were allowed to take on one job: tax collector, though they could hire someone else to do the work for them.

Jews also faced rules about owning slaves. They could not buy Christian slaves, though they could inherit them.

The Jewish religion was allowed to exist but not to grow too large. Building new synagogues was forbidden, although fixing older ones was permitted. Synagogues were still respected as sacred places of worship.

Justinian Code: 527–565

The laws made by Emperor Justinian changed life for Jews in the Byzantine Empire. These laws placed rules on Jews owning Christian slaves and required that Jewish places of worship, called synagogues, could not be on land owned by the Christian church. Justinian ordered that some synagogues be turned into Christian churches, but this only happened in a few places.

Jews also had special rules about their holidays and how they could speak in court. For example, they had to change the timing of their Passover holiday if it clashed with the Christian holiday of Easter. Even with these rules, many of Justinian's laws were not strongly enforced, and Jewish culture kept growing in quiet ways.

Punctuated tolerance, Jewish revolts, and the Crusades: 565–1204

During this time, Jews in the Byzantine Empire often faced changing rules from their rulers. Some leaders allowed Jews to live freely, while others made strict laws or treated them unfairly. For example, during a big war, some Jews supported groups fighting against the empire, which led to harsh rules against them.

Jews also made important contributions to learning and writing. They wrote religious songs still used today and created some of the oldest books written in the Greek language. In cities like Constantinople, Thebes, and Thessalonica, Jewish communities grew and kept their traditions alive.

Later, during the time of the Crusades, some groups traveling through the empire hurt Jewish communities. Some people tried to force Jews to change their beliefs, and sadly, some Jews had to make very hard choices to stay safe.

Latin occupation: 1204–1261

Further information: Latin Empire and Latinokratia

The Fourth Crusade made life harder for Jewish people in the Byzantine Empire. As the empire grew weaker, new smaller states formed, and their leaders could more easily make unfair laws.

One leader, Theodore Doukas, who ruled Epiros after taking over Thessalonica, treated Jewish people unfairly starting in 1229. He mostly wanted to take their property when he needed money.

Later, John Vatatzes, the ruler of Nicaea, also began treating Jewish people unfairly in 1253. He ordered them to change their religion but did not take their property. His son, Theodore II Laskaris, continued these unfair treatments.

During this difficult time, Michael VIII Palaiologos became the new emperor and mostly stopped the unfair treatment of Jewish people. He asked Jewish leaders to support him and canceled the order that made Jewish people change their religion. However, he also expected Jewish people to show they appreciated his help. Michael needed support and money for his army during a challenging time.

A decaying empire: 1261–1453

Further information: Byzantium under the Palaiologoi and Romaniote Jews

Andronikos II Palaiologos followed his father's ways. He was known for being more tolerant than others at the time. There were rules that said non-Christians, like Jews, should live in separate areas. In Constantinople, Jews lived near a gate called Yenikapı.

By the 1300s, many people from Venice lived in the Empire, including Jews from Venice. Because of agreements between Venice and the Empire, these Venetian Jews had special rights. They could buy, sell, or rent land anywhere in Constantinople and paid different taxes. Some Jews became Venetian citizens by moving from places under Venice’s control or by paying to become citizens. This gave them the same rights as other Venetians in the Empire. Even though the Empire was weakening, it could not take away these rights. So, for a time, Venetian Jews had more freedoms than Christians, but this was because they were Venetian, not because they were Jewish. Other Jews who were not from Venice did not have these rights.