Hundred Years' War

The Hundred Years' War was a long conflict between the kingdoms of England and France. It lasted from 1337 to 1453, which is about 116 years. The war started because of disagreements over land and a claim to the French throne by Edward III of England.

Over time, the war involved many places in Western Europe. It was not just kings fighting—it also affected trade, politics, and how wars were fought.

Leaders from two royal families fought to rule France, which was the richest and most crowded country in Western Europe at the time. The war led to changes in how battles were fought, including the use of new weapons and professional soldiers. It also helped people in England and France feel more proud of their countries.

Historians later called this struggle the "Hundred Years' War." The war happened in three main parts, with breaks in between. At first, the English did well, but in the end, the French, led by the House of Valois, kept control of France. Even after the war, English kings continued to call themselves rulers of France until the year 1802, although they did not actually control the country.

Overview

The Hundred Years' War was a long fight between the kingdoms of England and France. It lasted from 1337 to 1453. The war started because of old arguments over land and who should be the king of France.

There were many battles and changes in who was in charge. Both countries had big problems, like a terrible disease called the Black Death that killed many people. The war ended with France winning most of the land. It also changed how wars were fought, with new weapons and professional soldiers.

Causes and prelude

Dynastic turmoil in France: 1316–1328

When Louis X died in 1316, it was not clear who would be the next king of France. He had a young daughter, Joan II of Navarre, and a son, John I of France, who lived only five days. Some people questioned Joan’s right to rule because of her mother, Margaret of Burgundy. Because of this, Philip, Count of Poitiers, Louis X’s brother, became king as Philip V. After Philip V died, his brother, Charles IV, became king.

Charles IV died in 1328. He had a young daughter and a pregnant wife, Joan of Évreux. If the baby was a boy, he would become king. But Joan had a daughter, Blanche of France. This ended the main male line of the House of Capet.

The closest male relative was Edward III of England, but many French people did not want an Englishman to rule. In 1328, Philip, Count of Valois, became king as Philip VI. In 1340, the Avignon papacy agreed that under Salic law, a woman could not pass the throne to her son.

Edward III recognized Philip VI but kept the right to claim some lands.

Dispute over Guyenne: a problem of sovereignty

Tensions between France and England started in 1066 when the Norman Conquest brought the English throne under the control of the Duke of Normandy, who owed loyalty to the King of France. This meant English kings could use their power in France, which threatened French rule.

The Angevin kings of England, starting with Henry II, ruled many French lands. But Philip II of France took back many of these lands from King John of England. By the time of Edward III, England held only Gascony around Bordeaux.

The main problem was Guyenne (also called Aquitaine). Edward III held it as a vassal of France, meaning decisions there could be appealed to the French king. This imbalance caused conflict.

During the War of Saint-Sardos in 1324, Charles of Valois took Aquitaine for France. Charles IV agreed to return it in 1325 if Edward II sent his son, the future Edward III, to show loyalty.

Gascony under the King of England

In the 1100s, Gascony became part of Aquitaine after Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine. By 1327, when Edward III became king, the only English land left in France was the Duchy of Gascony.

For the first ten years of Edward III’s rule, Gascony caused tension. The English did not want to owe loyalty to France, but the French insisted. In 1329, Edward III showed loyalty to Philip VI but kept his crown and sword on during the ceremony to show his protest. France continued to pressure England over Gascony.

Edward had an advisor, Robert III of Artois, who encouraged him to reclaim France and shared information about the French court.

Franco-Scot alliance

France and the Kingdom of Scotland were allies because English kings often tried to control Scotland. In 1295, France and Scotland signed the Auld Alliance, promising to help each other if attacked. Charles IV renewed this treaty in 1326.

Philip VI prepared a navy for a crusade to the Holy Land but turned it toward England in 1336. Edward planned to send armies to deal with the Scots and to Gascony while talking with France.

History

Beginning of the war: 1337–1360

In 1337, King Philip of France refused to meet with a group from England, which started a war. Edward III of England claimed the French throne through his mother, Isabella, and took the title "King of France" in 1340. Edward tried to make friends with Flanders, which needed wool from England for its textiles.

Edward’s ships beat the French at the Battle of Sluys in 1340, giving England control of the water between the two countries. A fight over who would lead the Duchy of Brittany caused more battles. The English won the Battle of Crécy in 1346, and later captured the port city of Calais, which became an important base for England in France.

Battle of Poitiers

In 1356, the French king was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers, causing trouble in France. Edward invaded France again in 1360, hoping to take the throne, but faced strong defenses. A sudden hailstorm hurt his army, and he had to make peace, giving up some land to end the war.

First peace: 1360–1369

The French king was kept in England for several years. When he died, his son Charles V became king. Fighting continued as groups in France and England disagreed about the peace terms.

French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–1389

Charles V worked to make France stronger. He supported a rival in Spain, which led to more fighting. English efforts in France faced problems, and by 1380, the English held only a few ports.

Second peace: 1389–1415

The war slowed down, and both sides had problems inside their own countries. In England, King Richard II faced rebellions, and in France, a new king faced challenges from his family members.

Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–1429

In 1415, King Henry V of England attacked France. He won a big battle at the Battle of Agincourt and later took control of Normandy. In 1420, he signed a treaty to become heir to the French throne. However, he died early in 1422, leaving England with a young king.

French victory: 1429–1453

In 1429, a woman named Joan of Arc helped change the war in France’s favor. The French took back many cities and won important battles. By 1453, the French had taken most of the land the English held, ending the long conflict.

Significance

Historical significance

The French victory ended a long time of trouble that started with the Norman Conquest in 1066. This event made William the Conqueror both a servant to and equal of the king of France. After the war, England lost most of its land in Europe, keeping only Calais until 1558. The war ended England’s hope of joining with France in one monarchy. It also led England to reject French culture and language. English became the official language in 1362, and French was no longer taught from 1385.

The war helped both France and England become stronger countries. Even though France suffered a lot, the war helped it change from a system where local lords had power to a more unified country. In England, problems from the war helped cause political fights called the Wars of the Roses from 1455 to 1487.

Military significance

France’s success was partly because of its professional standing army, which Charles VII created in 1445. This army gave France an edge because its soldiers were paid all the time and were more disciplined than temporary troops. The war also brought big changes in battle methods and tools. By the end of the war, battles were won using new ways, such as field artillery, like in the Battle of Castillon. Heavy cavalry, once the strongest part of an army, had to change because of new tactics made to stop them. The English used lightly armored troops called hobelars, who fought on foot after riding to the battlefield.

Prominent figures

France

England

Burgundy