Huns

The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th centuries CE. They were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part of Scythia.

By 370 CE, they had arrived on the Volga, causing many groups like the Goths and Alans to move westward.

Under their king Attila, the Huns made frequent raids into the Eastern Roman Empire. In 451, they invaded Gaul, fighting a big battle, and in 452, they invaded Italy. After Attila died in 453, the Huns lost much of their power.

Scholars in the 18th century suggested a link between the Huns and the Xiongnu people of ancient China, but this remains uncertain. Recent studies show some Hun-era individuals had DNA similar to ancient populations in Mongolia.

Very little is known about Hunnic culture. They practiced nomadic pastoralism and used mounted archery in warfare. Their economy became tied to the Roman world through trade, tribute, and raiding. The Huns may have started the Great Migration, which helped cause the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Origin

Main article: Origin of the Huns

The Huns were a group of people who lived in the open lands of Central Asia. They first appeared near the Volga River around 370 CE. Their movement pushed other groups, like the Goths, further west. By around 430 CE, the Huns had built a large empire along the borders of the Roman Empire in Europe, but this empire did not last long.

Roman writers often described the Huns in unusual ways, saying they looked very different from Europeans. Some stories said the Huns entered the land of the Goths while chasing animals. These stories were more about how the Romans felt about the Huns than about facts. The exact origins of the Huns are still a mystery to historians.

History

Main article: History of the Huns

The story of the Huns in the fourth century is not very clear because they did not leave any records. The Romans first noticed the Huns when they moved into areas that forced many Goths to seek safety inside the Roman Empire in 376. The Huns defeated several groups, including the Alans, Greuthungi, and Thervingi, pushing many into the Roman Empire. By 395, the Huns started attacking the Eastern Roman Empire, moving through places like Thrace, Armenia, and Cappadocia. They also tried to attack the Sasanian Empire but were stopped by the Persians.

From 434, two brothers named Attila and Bleda ruled the Huns together. They made the Eastern Roman Empire agree to give them gifts and trading rights, but when the Romans stopped, Attila and Bleda attacked. After Bleda died in 445, Attila became the sole ruler. Attila led attacks into the Balkans and later into Gaul and Italy. In 453, Attila died.

After Attila's death, the Hunnic Empire began to fall apart. The Huns lost many of their allies and faced new challenges. Over time, the Huns were absorbed into other groups.

Lifestyle and economy

The Huns were a group of people who moved around with their animals. They raised animals like cattle, horses, goats, and sheep, and traveled to find grass for them to eat. They ate meat from these animals and also drank milk and made cheese.

The Huns rode horses almost all the time. They even slept on their horses and learned to ride before they could walk. They used wagons to carry their tents, belongings, and families when they moved.

The Huns traded with the Romans, exchanging animals and other goods for things like weapons and luxury items. They also received gold from the Romans for helping them in battles or as a payment called tribute.

Empire and rule

Government

Historians debate how the Huns were organized. Some think they were a loose group of leaders who later formed a more structured society. Others believe they became more organized when they moved into Europe and faced constant warfare.

The Huns did not always have permanent kings. Early leaders came to power during times of war, and their roles were not always passed down through families. Later, under leaders like Attila, the Huns had rulers, and Attila even had his son as a co-ruler. Some important men, called “picked men,” helped Attila govern, chosen either by birth or for their skills.

Extent of Hunnic territory

The Huns controlled a large area, though exactly how big is unclear. They lived near the Volga and Don rivers in the 390s but moved to the Great Hungarian Plain by the 420s. They took over areas along the Danube River and some parts of the Roman Empire, though they did not try to conquer all Roman lands. After Attila’s death, the Huns lost much of their territory.

Subject peoples

The Huns ruled many different groups, including the Goths, Gepids, and Alans. These groups kept their own leaders, but the Huns had more power and status.

Warfare

The Huns were known for their skillful horseback riding and quick attacks. They often used tricks in battle, like pretending to run away and then attacking their confused enemies. They were also good at surrounding cities and using simple tools to attack strong places. The Huns often fought with other groups, such as Germans, who helped them in battles.

Society and culture

"Hun culture" redirects here. For the 21st century British subculture, see Hun subculture.

Artificial cranial deformation

Artificial cranial deformation, the shaping of babies’ heads by binding, began in Europe in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. It became common in the Carpathian basin by the 5th century. This practice spread with invasions from Asia, linked to groups like the Huns. Some think it began with the Alans, who were close to the Huns, and the Sarmatians.

Languages

Many languages were spoken in the Hun Empire. Priscus noted that the Hunnic language was different from others at Attila’s court. Attila’s guests laughed at his jester Zerco, who mixed words from Latin, Hunnish, and Gothic. Some believe Gothic was the common language of the empire. Others think the Huns used Hunnic, Gothic, Latin, and Sarmatian. The Hunnic language is hard to classify, with only three recorded words. Scholars think it might be Turkic, Mongolic, Eastern Iranian, or Yeniseian, but many say it’s unclassifiable.

Marriage and the role of women

The Hun leaders practiced polygamy, while ordinary people likely had one spouse. Some writers said Hunnish women stayed hidden, but Priscus saw them moving freely and mixing with men. Women, like Attila’s chief wife Hereca, seemed to have important roles. Widows might have led villages, showing respect for women.

Religion

Little is known about Hun religion. Some Roman writers said the Huns had no religion, while others called them Pagans. Jordanes wrote that the Huns worshipped "the sword of Mars," a sacred sword linked to Attila’s rule. Some think they believed in prophecy and divination, possibly performed by spiritual leaders. There are hints they may have believed in water-spirits and made small idols. Some Huns converted to Christianity, and Attila allowed different Christian beliefs among his people.

Burials and burial customs

Jordanes described Attila’s funeral: the Huns cut their hair and marked their faces. They placed Attila’s coffin in a tent, rode around it singing, and buried it with treasures. Many Hun burials have been found, but most lack rich goods. Some graves show burned objects, and animal parts were rarely buried with people. Large burial mounds, common elsewhere, are missing in the Carpathian basin.

Material culture

We learn about the material culture of the Huns in two ways: old descriptions and archaeology. Roman writers often described the Huns unfairly, making them seem very simple. Because the Huns moved around a lot, they did not leave many things behind for archaeologists to find. It can be hard to tell if an object came from the Huns or from the Sarmatians, as they lived close together and had similar ways of doing things.

Cauldrons

Archaeologists have found many cauldrons that they think were made by the Huns. These cauldrons are usually made of copper and are not of very good quality. They came in different shapes and were sometimes found near water. They might have been used for cooking or for special purposes.

Clothing

We do not have good descriptions of what Hun clothes looked like. Some writers said the Huns wore simple clothes made of linen or animal skins. Others mentioned that they wore expensive furs. Archaeologists think Hun men and women wore long, sleeved coats called khalat, trousers, and leather boots. They also wore round caps made of felt.

Artistic decoration

Further information: Hunnic art

Hun jewelry and weapons often had colorful decorations. Some thinkers believe the Huns created their own style of art that mixed techniques from Asia with gold given to them by the Romans. Others think the decorated objects were made by local craftsmen for the Huns.

A copper-plated figurine found near Veszprém, Hungary, shows a man in armor with decorated pants and collars. Hun men and women wore gold plaques on their clothes and gold or jewel-covered shoe buckles. Women often wore fancy gold or gold-plated diadems and small mirrors. They also wore necklaces and bracelets made of beads from far away. Men sometimes wore earrings and gold or bronze neck rings.

Tents and dwellings

Writers from Rome said the Huns did not build houses but lived in tents or wagons. We have not found any tents or wagons in archaeological digs. Some think the Huns lived in tents made of felt and sheepskin. By the middle of the fifth century, some Huns had wooden houses, possibly built by their subjects.

Bows and arrows

Roman writers said the bow was very important to the Huns and was their main weapon. The Huns used a special kind of bow called the “Hun-type,” which was between 120 and 150 centimeters long. These bows were hard to make and very valuable. They shot bigger arrows than earlier bows, with iron, three-lobed arrowheads.

Riding gear

Riding equipment and harnesses are often found in Hun graves. The Huns did not use spurs but used whips to guide their horses. Some think the Huns invented a wooden-framed saddle, but recent studies suggest they used an earlier style of padded saddle.

The Huns are sometimes said to have introduced the stirrup to Europe, but no stirrups have been found in Hun graves, and there is no written proof they used them. Without stirrups, the Huns likely fought using bows and arrows from horseback.

Armor

Defensive gear and chainmail are rarely found in Hun graves. Some think the Huns used a type of armor called lamellar armor, which was common among steppe nomads. Metal armor was probably rare. Hun nobles might have worn different kinds of helmets.

Swords and other weapons

Roman writers said the Huns used iron swords. Ceremonial swords, daggers, and decorated scabbards are often found in Hun graves. Some think the Huns started the fashion of decorating swords with cloisonné, but others believe these swords were influenced by Mediterranean styles.

One type of sword the Huns used was the narrow-bladed long seax. The Huns and their allies also used a long, double-edged sword called an East Germanic or Asian spatha. Roman writers also said the Huns used lassos to catch enemies. Some Huns may have carried heavy lances.

Legacy

In Christian hagiography

After the Hunnic Empire ended, many stories grew up about the Huns. In Christian tales, the Huns sometimes appear in stories about saints. One story tells how when Attila, a Hun leader, was about to attack Rome in 452, he met Pope Leo I. The tale says that when Attila met the pope, two important saints appeared and stopped Attila from attacking. In another story, a saint named Ursula and her group arrived in Cologne just as the Huns were attacking. The story says the Huns harmed Ursula and her group, but their souls helped drive the Huns away and protect the city.

In Germanic legend

The Huns also appear in old German stories. These stories often talk about events from long ago and were first told by word of mouth. In these tales, the Huns and their leader Attila play important roles. One famous set of stories is about the Nibelungs, and another is about a hero named Dietrich von Bern. These stories sometimes show Attila and the Huns helping Dietrich after he lost his kingdom.

Links to the Hungarians

Starting in the Middle Ages, some Hungarian writers said their people were related to the Huns. This idea began in stories from other places and was later used by Hungarians to give their history a longer past. Modern scientists, however, do not believe the Hungarians and Huns were actually related. They think the Hungarian people came from a different group entirely.

Modern associations with savagery

In modern times, people often think of the Huns as very harsh. During World War I and World War II, some leaders used the name "Huns" to describe their enemies in a bad way. This helped them make their enemies seem like dangerous outsiders.