Attila

Attila, often called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until he died in 453. He led a group of people including Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Gepids in Central and Eastern Europe.

Attila and his brother Bleda became leaders after their uncle Rugila died. Bleda died in 445, so Attila became the only ruler. He was a big threat to both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.

Attila crossed the Danube River twice and attacked places called the Balkans but could not capture Constantinople. In 441, he attacked the Eastern Roman Empire. This made him bold enough to attack the West. He went into Roman Gaul, or what we now call France, in 451, getting close to Orléans before being stopped at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.

Later, he attacked Italy and caused damage in the northern areas but could not take Rome. Attila planned more attacks on the Romans but died in 453. After his death, his adviser Ardaric led a revolt, and the Hunnic Empire broke up quickly. Attila became a famous figure in Germanic heroic legend.

Etymology

Most scholars believe the name Attila comes from an East Germanic root. It means "little father". This idea was first suggested by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 1800s.

Some other scholars think the name might have a Turkic origin. Different ideas include it coming from words meaning "great" or "sea". However, many experts find these ideas hard to accept.

Historian George VI of the United Kingdom had a name from Greece, and Süleyman the Magnificent had a name from Arabic. Some think Attila’s name might also come from a Mongolian word for a type of horse. Recently, in 2025, some suggested it might come from an Old Arin word meaning “quick”.

Historiography and sources

Learning about Attila the Hun is tricky because the main records were written by his enemies in Greek and Latin. Many people who lived during his time wrote about him, but only small parts of their work still exist today.

One important writer was Priscus, a Byzantine diplomat who visited Attila's court. Though he was influenced by his own political views, his writings give us valuable details about Attila. Priscus wrote about the later years of the Roman Empire, but only pieces of his work remain. Later historians like Procopius and Jordanes used his writings in their own books, especially Jordanes in The Origin and Deeds of the Goths. These works help us understand Attila and the Hunnic empire.

Other sources include church writings from many years ago, which can be hard to check because they were copied many times. Writers from Hungary centuries later tried to show the Huns in a good light, sometimes leaving out true facts and adding their own stories. The Huns shared their history through spoken tales and poems passed down through generations. These stories reached us through the writings of their neighbors, the Scandinavians and Germans, who wrote between the 9th and 13th centuries. Attila appears in famous old stories like the Nibelungenlied.

Archaeological studies have found clues about how the Huns lived, their art, and their battles. However, the tomb of Attila and the place where he ruled have not yet been discovered.

Appearance and character

We do not have personal descriptions of Attila from his time. A writer named Jordanes told what another writer, Priscus, had said about him. Attila was known for making people afraid. He walked in a proud way and moved his eyes around a lot. Though short, he had a wide chest and big head, small eyes, a thin greyish beard, a flat nose, and dark skin. Some thinkers think these traits suggest his family may have come from East Asia, while others think they match some Scythian people.

Early life and background

Main article: Huns

The Huns were people who came from faraway lands and moved into Europe around the year 370. They were good at riding horses and were strong warriors. They moved from place to place and relied on their animals for food.

Attila was born into an important Hunnic family. His father was connected to the leaders of the Hunnic empire. Attila grew up during a time of big changes, as his people moved into new areas and affected many others. The Huns were powerful, and their movements made many groups of people move into the Roman Empire. The Romans and the Huns had a complicated relationship, sometimes working together and other times fighting. By the time Attila was growing up, the Huns had become an important force in Europe.

Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire

When the leader of the Huns, Rugila, died in 434, his nephews Attila and Bleda took control. They asked the Eastern Roman Empire to return people who had fled from the Huns. The Romans agreed to give back these people, pay more gold each year, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay for any Romans the Huns had captured.

Later, the Huns attacked the Roman Empire again. They crossed the Danube River and destroyed several cities and forts. They moved through the Balkans, capturing important places such as Margus, Viminacium, Singidunum (Belgrade), and Sirmium. The Romans tried to stop them but could not. Finally, the Romans agreed to give even more gold and pay higher prices for captured Romans. After this, Bleda died, and Attila became the sole ruler of the Huns.

Solitary kingship

In 447, Attila led his army into the Eastern Roman Empire through Moesia. The Roman army, led by a commander named Arnegisclus, fought against him in the Battle of the Utus. Though the Romans lost, they still made Attila's forces suffer many losses. After this battle, Attila's army moved through the Balkans and reached as far as Thermopylae.

The city of Constantinople was saved because of its strong walls. Leaders like Zeno and Constantinus had repaired and built new defenses. Even though Attila's forces captured many cities, Constantinople stayed safe.

In the west

In 450, Attila decided to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse. He formed an alliance with Emperor Valentinian III. Before this, he had been friendly with the Western Roman Empire and its general Flavius Aëtius.

Attila said that the sister of Valentinian, Honoria, asked him for help. He thought this was a proposal to marry and asked for half of the western Empire. When Valentinian learned of this, he sent Honoria away and refused the proposal. Attila still said the proposal was real and that he would claim his rights.

Attila got involved in a leadership problem among the Franks, supporting the older son, while Aëtius supported the younger one. Attila gathered many groups, including Gepids, Ostrogoths, and others, and moved west. In 451, he reached Belgica with his army.

He captured Metz and Strasbourg. Some cities were saved by the prayers of their bishops, such as Tongeren and possibly Paris. Aëtius gathered troops from the Franks, Burgundians, and Celts. He convinced the Visigoth king Theodoric I to join the Romans. The combined forces reached Orléans before Attila and stopped his advance. The two sides met near Châlons-en-Champagne and fought in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. The battle ended with the Visigothic–Roman alliance winning. Theodoric was killed, and Attila’s army went back home.

Invasion of Italy and death

Attila came back in 452 to continue his claim to marry Honoria. He moved through Italy, and many people had to leave their homes. Some of these people went to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon, which later became the city of Venice. His army attacked many towns and destroyed Aquileia so well that it was hard to even find where it had been.

The Emperor Valentinian III sent three men to talk to Attila. One of them was Pope Leo I. They asked Attila to leave Italy and make peace. Italy was also having trouble getting enough food, and it would have been hard to go closer to Rome without more supplies. Also, soldiers from the East Roman Empire had crossed the Danube River and defeated some of Attila’s men. Because of all these reasons, Attila decided to go back to his own land.

Death

Attila died in early 453. This happened while he was at a party for his new marriage to a girl named Ildico. He got very sick and passed away. His body was put in a tent, and his friends held special ceremonies to honor him. They rode around his body on horses and sang songs about his brave actions. Attila was buried in a secret place, and the people who buried him were asked to keep the secret by not telling anyone where he was buried.

Descendants

After Attila died, his sons tried to lead the empire, but this caused problems and the empire split up. A fight in Pannonia led to the death of Attila’s oldest son Ellac. His other sons tried to keep ruling but were defeated. Many families, including the Hungarian Árpád dynasty, later said they were descendants of Attila.

Later folklore and iconography

The name Attila has many forms in different languages. For example, it is Atli and Atle in Old Norse, Etzel in Middle High German (Nibelungenlied), Ætla in Old English, and has many versions in Hungarian, Turkish, Kazakh, and Mongolian.

Many medieval Hungarian stories claimed that the Hungarians were connected to the Huns. They believed that their royal family, the Árpád dynasty, were descendants of Attila.

Some stories talk about a special sword linked to Attila. There are also legends about Attila meeting Pope Leo.

Attila appears in many old German stories and poems. He also inspired works by famous people like Ludwig van Beethoven and Giuseppe Verdi. Today, "Attila" is used as a first name in some countries, and there are streets named after him in places like Budapest.