Indigenous peoples in Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada

In Canada, Indigenous peoples (also known as Aboriginal Canadians) make up about 5% of the overall population. They include the Inuit, Métis, and First Nations. There are over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, each with unique cultures, languages, music, and arts.

Some of the earliest known places where people lived in Canada are Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves. Before Europeans arrived, Indigenous cultures had permanent homes, farmed land, built important structures, and had complex societies and trading networks. The Métis people, of mixed ancestry, began forming in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit married Europeans, mostly French settlers. First Nations and Métis peoples helped European settlers, especially during the North American fur trade.

Over time, many laws and agreements, called treaties, were made between Indigenous groups and European settlers. These events shaped Canada's culture, history, and government. Today, Indigenous peoples have the right to self-government, managing their own cultural, political, health, and economic matters. National Indigenous Peoples Day celebrates their many contributions to the history of Canada. Many Indigenous people have become important leaders and have helped shape the Canadian cultural identity.

Terminology

In Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982, the term "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes Indian, Inuit, and Métis peoples. The word "Aboriginal" is used in laws to talk about all Indigenous groups in Canada. Many people think the word "Indian" is not kind, even though it is still used in legal documents for First Nations.

People are now using the word Indigenous peoples instead of Aboriginal peoples. People are also trying to recognize each group as its own nation, just like different cultures around the world.

The word First Nations has been used a lot since the 1970s instead of "Indians" or "Indian bands." On Indian reserves, some people use the name of their specific group, like "I am Haida" or "we are Kwantlens." The word native can be confusing because it might talk about anyone born in a place, not just Indigenous peoples. The Indian Act is a law that defines who is legally called an Indian in Canada.

History

See also: History of Canada

Paleo-Indian period

See also: Peopling of the Americas and Paleo-Indians

Further information: Technological and industrial history of Canada § The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)

People first came to North and South America a long time ago. During a cold time called the Wisconsin glaciation, sea levels fell and people could walk across a land bridge from Siberia to Alaska. Alaska had less snow, so a few people could live there. Most of Canada was covered in ice, so people stayed in Alaska for thousands of years.

Studies of Indigenous genes show that the first people in the Americas came from one group that lived in isolation in Beringia. This isolation might have lasted between 10,000 and 20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, glaciers melted and people could move south and east into Canada and beyond.

The first people arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago. They likely followed animals such as giant beavers, bison, muskox, mastodons, woolly mammoths, and early caribou. They might have walked south along an ice-free path next to the Rocky Mountains or traveled along the coast using boats. Evidence of early people has been found in places like the Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves in Yukon.

Clovis sites from 13,500 years ago were found in western North America. Clovis people were thought to be the first widespread Paleo-Indian people in the New World.

Local cultures began to form after a cold period called the Younger Dryas. The Folsom tradition used special stone tools called Folsom points for hunting bison.

The land bridge stayed for a long time, until about 13,000–11,000 years ago. Low sea levels created grasslands around Haida Gwaii. People left tools and remains of animals they hunted behind. In 1992, Canada named X̱á:ytem a national historic site.

The Plano cultures lived on the Great Plains between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. They hunted bison and other animals and used special stone tools called Plano points. They also ate pronghorn, elk, deer, raccoon, and coyote. They began to settle in one place more often.

Archaic period

See also: Pre-Columbian era

The climate in North America became stable around 8000 BCE, similar to today. This led to more movement of people, farming, and growth in population.

Canada's different climates and lands shaped the ways of life for Indigenous people. Language was important for their identity and spiritual beliefs.

Burial sites from the Archaic period show that some people were more important than others.

People lived in places like Stave Lake, Coquitlam Lake, and Fort Langley. They were small groups of hunters and gatherers.

The Na-Dene people lived in northwest and central North America starting around 8,000 BCE. They were ancestors of the Navajo and Apache. They had villages with big homes for families.

The Wendat people settled in Southern Ontario around 8,000–7,000 BCE. They hunted caribou. Many First Nations cultures hunted buffalo starting around 6,000–5,000 BCE. They hunted buffalo by driving them off cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump was a hunting place used for about 5,000 years.

By 7,000–5000 BCE, cultures on the west coast of Canada fished for salmon. The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver Island began whaling around this time.

The Maritime Archaic people lived along the Atlantic Coast from about 7,000 BCE to 1,500 BCE. They lived in longhouses and temporary homes and traded using white stone called chert.

The Pre-Columbian culture called the Red Paint People lived in New England and Atlantic Canada from 3,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE. They used red ochre in their burial ceremonies.

The Arctic small tool tradition developed around 2,500 BCE. These people used small stone tools called microblades for arrows and spears.

Post-Archaic periods

See also: List of archaeological periods (North America)

The Old Copper complex societies lived from 3,000 BCE to 500 BCE. They found copper in the northern Great Lakes and used it to make tools.

The Woodland period lasted from about 1,000 BCE to 1,000 CE. It included areas in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritimes. People made pottery, which helps us know about this time. They grew crops like squash, corn, and beans.

The Hopewell tradition lived along rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. They traded with people around Lake Ontario.

First Nations

Main article: First Nations in Canada

First Nations people settled across Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. They had their own cultures and ways of life.

People lived in the northwest, along the Pacific coast, the Plains, the Northern Woodlands, around the Great Lakes, and the Atlantic Coast.

Many First Nations had big towns, farms, buildings, and leaders.

There might have been contact before Christopher Columbus between Indigenous people and others. Indigenous people first met Europeans around 1000 CE, but more contact happened after Europeans settled in the 1600s. Europeans traded with First Nations, which helped groups like the Iroquois Confederation.

Important First Nations leaders include Joe Capilano and Ovide Mercredi.

Inuit

Main article: Inuit

Inuit are from the Thule culture, which started in western Alaska around 1,000 CE and moved east. They replaced the Dorset culture.

Inuit had trade routes and sometimes fought over land.

Inuit groups sometimes fought each other. After Norse people left Greenland, Inuit had no contact with Europeans for a long time. Later, Basque fishers came to the Labrador coast. Inuit took tools from these fishers.

Well-known Inuit include Abraham Ulrikab, Tanya Tagaq, Abe Okpik, and Kiviaq.

Métis

Main article: Métis

The Métis are people from marriages between Europeans and First Nations. Their history began in the mid-1600s.

When Europeans came to Canada, they needed help from Indigenous people for trading furs and surviving. Marriages between European traders and Indigenous women helped build relationships. The Métis live in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and the Northwest Territories.

Famous Métis people include Tom Jackson, Tony Whitford, and Louis Riel.

The Métis speak Métis French or Michif. Some also speak English and Indigenous languages.

On September 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of Canada said Métis are a distinct group with rights.

Unlike First Nations, Métis have not had separate status, and many have become part of the larger population.

Forced assimilation

Main articles: Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples and Settler colonialism in Canada

From the late 1700s, European Canadians wanted Indigenous people to change to fit Canadian ways. These efforts grew stronger in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Christianization

Missionaries worked with Indigenous people since the 1600s. The Indian Act of 1876 made Christianity required. Laws stopped non-Christian practices, like the Potlatch.

Sedentary living, reserves, and "gradual civilization"

The government wanted Indigenous people to settle in one place and farm. They created reserves with many rules. Farming was encouraged, but rules made it hard.

The Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 offered Indigenous people a way to give up their legal status, but this took away their rights.

Residential system

Main articles: Canadian Indian residential school system and Residential school denialism

From 1874 to 1996, the government and churches ran residential schools for Indigenous children. Children were often forced to go. The schools had poor conditions and abuse.

In 2006, Canada paid CA$2 billion to survivors. In 2008, the Prime Minister apologized for the residential schools.

Politics, law, and legislation

See also: Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada

Indigenous law vs. Aboriginal law

Further information: Canadian Indigenous law

Indigenous peoples in Canada have their own legal systems. These systems help them govern their communities and solve problems. These laws come from many different traditions. Canadian Aboriginal law looks at how the government works with Indigenous groups. This includes groups under the Indian Act, treaties, and other agreements.

Treaties

The relationship between the Monarchy of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of Canada started during European colonization. Important agreements, like the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Niagara, recognized Indigenous rights. These agreements are still important today.

After Canada grew in 1870, eleven Numbered Treaties were made with First Nations from 1871 to 1921. These treaties are official agreements watched over by Canadian law.

Treaty rights became part of the 1982 Constitution. Many older agreements, like the Peace and Friendship Treaties and the Robinson Treaties, are still recognized in Canadian law. However, some First Nations, such as the Mikmaq and Anishnaabe, still do not have treaties with the Crown.

In recent years, Canada has worked on new treaties. The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement in 1970 was the first. This was followed by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement in 1984 and the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement in 1993, which created the territory of Nunavut.

Indian Act

Main article: Indian Act

The Indian Act is a Canadian law from 1876. It helps manage relationships between the government and Indigenous peoples. Over time, the law has been changed to give more rights to Indigenous communities.

In 1985, Canada changed the Indian Act to remove unfair rules, especially those that treated women unfairly. It also let some people regain their status or band membership. Bands can now decide their own membership rules.

Royal Commission

Main article: Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

In 1991, Canada created the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. This group looked at past government policies toward Indigenous peoples and suggested changes. Their report in 1996 had many ideas to improve how Indigenous and non-Indigenous people work together in Canada.

Health policy

Main article: Indian Health Transfer Policy

In 1995, Canada announced policies to help Indigenous peoples manage their own health services. This lets First Nations and Inuit create governments that fit their needs. Communities can choose when and how to take control of health services.

Political organization

Further information: Band government and History of Indigenous organizations in Canada

Indigenous groups in Canada have many ways to organize themselves. Some are small bands, while others are large groups like the Iroquois. National groups like the Assembly of First Nations, the Métis National Council, and the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami represent these communities. They work with the Government of Canada on issues like land and rights.

Culture

See also: Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Many words and inventions from Indigenous cultures are now used in Canada. Things like the canoe, snowshoes, toboggan, lacrosse, tug of war, maple syrup, and tobacco come from Indigenous traditions. Words such as barbecue, caribou, chipmunk, woodchuck, hammock, skunk, and moose also have Indigenous roots.

Many Canadian place names come from Indigenous languages. The word “Canada” itself comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning “village” or “settlement.” The province of Saskatchewan gets its name from the Saskatchewan River. Ottawa, Canada’s capital, comes from the Algonquin language.

Youth groups like Scouts Canada and the Girl Guides of Canada include activities based on Indigenous traditions.

Indigenous cultures developed around their environment. For example, the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast relied on fishing, while people in the interior hunted animals. On the plains, bison hunting was important. In the subarctic forest, animals like moose were key. Near the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, some groups grew crops like maize, beans, and squash. For the Inuit, hunting, especially of seals, was important. One famous symbol of Inuit culture is the inuksuk, a stack of stones.

Indian reserves are special lands for First Nations peoples. Today, Indigenous people work in many jobs and live in various places, but they still value their traditions. National Indigenous Peoples Day is celebrated on June 21 to honor Indigenous cultures.

Languages

Further information: Indigenous languages of the Americas and Languages of Canada § Indigenous languages

See also: Canadian Aboriginal syllabics

Canada is home to many Indigenous languages. Only Cree, Inuktitut, and Ojibwe have enough speakers to continue. In Nunavut, Inuktut is an official language. In the Northwest Territories, many languages are recognized.

Visual art

Further information: Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Indigenous peoples have created art for thousands of years. Their art comes from many different areas of North America. Indigenous art often focuses on small, portable items. For example, the Inuit use masks and rattles in ceremonies. Artists have also used materials from trade, like metal and glass beads.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian laws banned many Indigenous cultural practices. But since the 1950s and 1960s, Indigenous artists have renewed their art. Today, Indigenous artists work in all kinds of media.

Music

Main article: Indigenous music of Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada have many musical traditions. Music can be for social gatherings or for ceremonies. Social music often includes dancing with rattles and drums. Ceremonial music may include singing with percussion.

Traditionally, Indigenous people made their own instruments from natural materials. For example, they used gourds and animal horns for rattles, and wood and antlers for drumsticks. Drums were made from wood and animal hides. These instruments were important for songs and dances.

Demography

Further information: Population of Canada § Indigenous peoples, and Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

See also: List of First Nations peoples in Canada and List of Indian reserves in Canada

There are three main groups of Indigenous peoples in Canada: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. These groups are recognized in Canada's laws. In 2021, about 1.8 million Indigenous people lived in Canada. This is about 5% of the country's population. The number of Indigenous people has been growing.

Most Indigenous people in Canada are young. The average age for Indigenous people is 33 years, while it is 42 years for non-Indigenous people. Many Indigenous communities have more children than other groups. In the past, Indigenous populations were smaller, but they have grown a lot over the years.