Indigenous peoples of California

Indigenous peoples of California, often called Indigenous Californians or Native Californians, are many different groups who lived in the area now known as California before and after European colonization. Today, there are 109 federally recognized tribes in the state, and more groups are working toward federal recognition. California has the second-largest Native American population in the United States.

Most tribes used careful methods like forest gardening, permaculture, and controlled burning to help their food grow and keep the land healthy. Evidence shows people have lived in California for thousands of years. European settlers began exploring the area in the late 1700s.

Today, Native Californians work to protect their cultures, lands, and important places. In recent years, some tribes have started language revitalization efforts. The Land Back movement is growing, with more support to return land to tribes. California is also learning from Native peoples' knowledge to help protect the environment and prevent wildfires.

Classification

Many tribes in California have lands that go past the state borders. Some tribes near Nevada are called Great Basin tribes. Tribes near the Oregon border are called Plateau tribes. Tribes in Baja California that stay in Mexico are part of the Indigenous peoples of Mexico. The Kumeyaay live on both sides of the Mexico-United States border.

History

Further information: History of the west coast of North America

Indigenous

People have lived in California for at least 19,000 years. Places like Borax Lake and the Santa Barbara Channel Islands show signs of early homes. The Arlington Springs Man is a very old skeleton found on the Channel Islands. Shellfish remains show people lived in places like Daisy Cave between 12,000 and 9,000 years ago.

Before Europeans came, about 500 different groups of Indigenous people lived in California. California had many Native American people because of its good weather and food. Early people hunted and gathered food, and later collected seeds. Different cultures grew over time, adapting to where they lived.

Indigenous people took care of forests, grasslands, and wetlands. They used controlled fires to clear land and help plants grow, which also stopped big wildfires.

Contact with Europeans

Main article: Spanish colonization of the Americas

Different tribes met Europeans at different times. Tribes along the coast met explorers in the mid-1500s. Tribes in the southeast met Spanish explorers later. Tribes in the northwest met Russian explorers in the late 1700s. Some tribes in remote areas didn’t meet Europeans until the mid-1800s.

Late 18th century: Missions and decline

Further information: Mission Indians and Spanish missions in California

When the first Spanish Mission was built in 1769, California had around 340,000 Indigenous people. The Spanish built 20 missions, and many Indigenous people went there. From 1769 to 1832, there were many births and marriages but also many deaths at the missions. This happened because of diseases, hard work, and poor food.

The missions brought new plants and animals that changed the land and the way people lived. They also stopped many cultural practices and forced people to follow new religions.

19th century: decline

The number of Indigenous people in California dropped a lot during the 1800s—from over 200,000 to about 15,000. This happened because of diseases, wars, and trouble from settlers.

Russian contacts (1812–1841)

Main article: Russian colonization of North America § California

In the early 1800s, Russian explorers visited California. They met Indigenous people and noted their independence and creativity.

Mexican secularization (1833–1848)

Further information: Ranchos of California

In the 1830s, Mexico changed the rules for missions, ending religious control over Indigenous people. Land was given to settlers, and many Indigenous people had to work for them without getting much in return.

American settler control (1848–)

Following the Mexican–American War, American settlers took control of California. They treated Indigenous people very harshly, leading to many conflicts and a big drop in their population.

California Gold Rush and forced labor (1848–1855)

Further information: California Gold Rush § Native Americans, and Forced labor in California

The Gold Rush brought many settlers to California, causing big problems for Indigenous people. Many lost their homes and food, and some were taken for forced labor. Laws allowed people to take Indigenous children for work.

American unratified treaties (1851–1852)

Main article: California Indian Reservations and Cessions

In the 1850s, the U.S. tried to make treaties with Indigenous people, promising them land. But settlers didn’t like these treaties, and the U.S. government didn’t approve them, leaving Indigenous people without the land they were promised.

California decline (1846–1873)

Main article: California genocide

Violence against Indigenous people continued after the Gold Rush. In the northern areas, militias attacked Indigenous communities. The Modoc people fought back but suffered heavy losses.

20th century: Forced assimilation

By 1900, only about 16,000 Indigenous people remained. They faced policies that tried to erase their culture. Children were sent to schools where they had to act like white people, speak new languages, and give up their traditions.

Indian removal in California (1903)

Main article: Indian removal

In 1903, the last major forced move of Indigenous people in the U.S. happened in Southern California. The Cupeño people were forced to leave their homeland and move to Pala.

Indian boarding schools in California (1892–1935)

See also: American Indian boarding schools

From the late 1800s to the 1930s, Indigenous children were sent to boarding schools. There, they were given new names, forced to wear new clothes, and not allowed to speak their languages. Many suffered from poor conditions.

Unratified treaties reimbursement (1944–1946)

Since the 1920s, Indigenous groups asked for money back for the land promised in unratified treaties. In the 1940s, they received millions of dollars, but not the land.

Religious Freedom Act in California (1978–)

The Religious Freedom Act in 1978 gave Indigenous people some rights to practice their religions. But it didn’t always protect their sacred lands or sites.

21st century

California has the largest Indigenous population in the U.S., with over 1.2 million people identifying as Indigenous. Many are from other tribes, but some are from California tribes.

Recognition as decline (2019)

For over a century, many people didn’t recognize the serious harm done to Indigenous people in California. In 2019, the governor apologized and started a council to learn about this history.

Language revival

After many years of stopping Indigenous languages, some are coming back. Tribes like Chumash and Yurok are working to teach their languages again.

Prison system

Indigenous people, especially women, are put in prison more often than others. Some see this as continuing old patterns of control.

Burial sites, remains, and cultural items

Laws help protect some remains, but development still hurts many burial sites and sacred places.

Land Back movement

Some land has been returned to tribes. For example, Tuluwat Island was given back to the Wiyot tribe, and in 2024, more land was returned to the Shasta Indian Nation.

Material culture

Basket weaving

Further information: Pomo § Basket weaving tradition

Basket making was very important to Native American people in California. Baskets were pretty and useful. They were made from twine and could hold water for cooking. Tribes made baskets in many shapes and sizes for different uses, like carrying babies, collecting food, cooking, and wearing as hats. Women usually made the baskets, and girls learned how to make them from a young age.

Foods

See also: Native American cuisine

The Indigenous peoples of California had many different foods from plants, animals, and the ocean. Coastal groups often ate fish and shellfish, while people living inland ate more nuts, seeds, hunted animals, and used river resources. Because there were many different foods, if one was not available, there were others to use. Some main foods included fish, shellfish, insects, deer, elk, and plants like buckeye and sage seed.

Plant-based foods

Acorns from the California Live Oak were a main food for many groups. They were ground into meal and then boiled or baked to make bread. Other plants used for food included berries from the Manzanita, which could be eaten fresh, cooked, or made into jelly. The California juniper provided both food and medicine, and its berries were eaten fresh or dried. California hazelnuts were also an important food for some groups at certain times of the year. Food was not just for eating—it also brought families and communities together.

Marine life

Coastal groups hunted marine mammals like northern elephant seals and California sea lions for meat, blubber, and fur. They also fished along the shore for many types of fish.

Anadromous fish

Anadromous fish, such as Pacific salmon, were very important for groups living near rivers like the Klamath and Sacramento. Salmon came up these rivers and streams, and for some groups like the Yurok and Karuk, salmon and acorns were main foods. Fish needed special tools like dip nets and harpoons and were caught only during certain times of the year. The fish were then dried and stored for later use.

Land Management

Many Indigenous communities took care of their land to help grow more food. They used controlled burns to keep grasslands open, support useful plants, and make hunting easier. These burns needed careful planning and knowledge passed down through generations. This land management helped keep ecosystems healthy and provided reliable food sources. However, colonization changed these practices, altering the environment and making some traditional foods harder to find.

Society and culture

Tribes in California had different roles for men and women. Women often gathered food and prepared meals, while men usually hunted. Some Native people dressed in special ways and had important jobs in their communities.

Many tribes in Central California and Northern California followed the Kuksu religion. They had special dances and ceremonies with unique costumes. In Southern California, tribes such as the Luiseño and Diegueño had their own religion. Their ceremonies included drinking a special plant to feel closer to their spirits.

California’s Native American cultures made beautiful rock art, especially the Chumash people. These were colorful paintings on rocks that showed people, animals, and other designs. They were very important to their beliefs.

Reservations

See also: List of federally recognized tribes by state § California

In California, many Indigenous people live in places called reservations. These are special communities where they can live together. Some of these reservations have more than 500 people living there.

List of peoples

Main articles: List of indigenous peoples in California and Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas

Many groups of Indigenous peoples have lived in California for a very long time. These groups have different names and come from different parts of the state.

Some of these groups include the Achomawi, Atsugewi, Cahuilla, Chemehuevi, and Chumash. Each group has its own traditions and languages. Others include the Esselen, Hupa, Karok, and Kato. Many of these groups still exist today and work to keep their cultures alive.

Languages

Further information: Indigenous languages of the Americas

Before Europeans arrived, the people of California spoke more than 300 different ways of talking, called dialects, from about 100 different languages. There were so many languages because California had many different places to live, and small groups of people lived apart from each other. Each group had its own language.

Most of these languages were special to just a few small groups. Some belonged to bigger groups of languages, while others were unique and not part of any bigger group. Some languages might have been in California even before other languages arrived from nearby places.