Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294) was the founder and first emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. He proclaimed the dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, and ruled until his death in 1294.

Kublai was the second son of Tolui by his chief wife Sorghaghtani Beki, and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He became Khagan in 1260 after his older brother Möngke died. He had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in a fight for power lasting until 1264. This fight led to the division of the Mongol Empire. Kublai's rule was mainly over the Yuan Empire, though he still had some influence on the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde.

In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty and said he was the rightful ruler after earlier Chinese dynasties. The Yuan dynasty ruled most of present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, southern Siberia, and nearby areas. He also had influence in the Middle East and Europe. By 1279, the Yuan conquest of the Song dynasty was finished and Kublai became the first ruler from outside the Han people to govern all of China proper. As emperor, he sent armies to Japan, Vietnam, Burma, and Java.

Early years

Kublai Khan was the fourth son of Tolui, and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki. His grandfather, Genghis Khan, did a special ceremony for him after his first hunt. Kublai grew up learning from wise teachers and became very interested in Han culture. He asked important monks and scholars to help him, like Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, poet, and mathematician. Kublai worked hard to solve problems in the lands he was in charge of. He brought back people who had left because of unfair taxes.

Victory in northern China

In 1251, Kublai's brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire. Kublai was sent to China proper and given control over northern China. He worked hard to help the people, especially farmers, in places like Henan and Xi'an.

Kublai was also asked to attack Yunnan. After some fighting, he brought the region under Mongol control. He was kind to many people there and worked with local leaders. Kublai also became interested in Tibetan monks and supported Buddhism. He changed some Taoist temples into Buddhist places of worship.

Enthronement and civil war

Main article: Toluid Civil War

Kublai Khan had a problem with his younger brother Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke said he should be the leader of the Mongols. He had a big meeting and called himself Great Khan. Kublai did not agree. He got help from his brothers and others to become Great Khan. In April 1260, Kublai’s friends named him Great Khan.

This caused a fight between Kublai and Ariq Böke. They had battles and tried many plans. Kublai tried to stop Ariq Böke from getting supplies and got support from important leaders. Finally, Ariq Böke gave up to Kublai in 1264, and the fighting stopped. Kublai was kind to Ariq Böke and let him go, but he was strict with Ariq Böke’s friends.

Reign

Kublai Khan had to handle many problems in leading the big Mongol Empire. He tried to make peace between different Mongol groups, like the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate, after they fought over leaders and land. Kublai also worked to make areas like the Korean Peninsula and China safe under his rule.

In 1271, Kublai changed the name of the Mongol rule in China to the Yuan dynasty. He tried to govern well by using Chinese ways of running things. He built things like canals and helped trade and culture grow. Some Mongol leaders did not like his changes because they thought he changed too much from Mongol ways. Kublai's time as leader had both growth and hard times as he tried to bring together many different cultures and groups in his empire.

Warfare and foreign relations

See also: Kublai Khan's campaigns, Mongol military tactics and organization, and Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty

Kublai Khan changed his imperial guard and used new tools for his army. He led many battles in southern China, which helped the Yuan dynasty defeat the Song dynasty with better sea tactics.

Kublai also wanted to grow his empire past China. He attacked places like Japan, Vietnam, and Burma. In Japan, his ships were hurt by bad weather and fights with Japanese warriors. In Vietnam, his armies met strong defense but later made Vietnam a tributary state. These battles cost a lot and caused money problems in China because of the use of paper money.

Capital city

After Kublai Khan became the leader, he worked to organize his country. He sent a government official named Zhang Wenqian to a place called Daming where people were upset. With him went a friend named Guo Shoujing, who was very good at making tools to study the stars and time. Guo made special instruments to help understand the stars better.

Kublai also brought in architects and artists to build his new capital city, named Khanbaliq (which is now Beijing). One of these artists was Araniko from Nepal, who built a large white Stupa there. Guo helped bring water to the capital by building a channel from a spring, and he also worked on improving irrigation and canals in other parts of the country.

Nayan's rebellion

Kublai Khan faced a rebellion led by Nayan, who was related to Genghis Khan. Nayan wanted more power for his family and tried to work with Kublai's rival, Kaidu. Many Mongol nobles supported Nayan, but Kublai acted fast.

Kublai sent his general Bayan to stop Nayan and Kaidu from joining forces. Kublai led another army against the rebels. After a hard battle, Nayan's forces lost, and Nayan was captured. The rebellion showed Kublai that he needed stronger control, so he made a new government office to manage the area better.

Later years

Kublai Khan sent his grandson Gammala to Burkhan Khaldun in 1291 to protect his family's claim to a sacred burial site. During these years, his rival Kaidu did not launch major attacks. Kublai's army pushed back Kaidu’s forces from the Central Siberian Plateau.

After the death of his wife Chabi in 1281, Kublai became more distant from his advisers and relied on another queen, Nambui. His son Zhenjin was his chosen successor and led the government in a traditional Chinese style. However, Zhenjin died in 1286, which made Kublai very sad. As Kublai grew older, he faced health problems and felt sadness from losing loved ones. Before he passed away, he ensured that Zhenjin’s son, Temür, would become the next ruler. Kublai died on 18 February 1294 at the age of 78.

Family

Kublai Khan was the grandson of Genghis Khan. After his first wife, Tegulen, died, he married Chabi of the Khongirad. She became his most loved empress. After Chabi died in 1281, Kublai married her cousin, Nambui.

Kublai had many children with his wives and concubines. Some of his best-known children were Zhenjin, his crown prince, and Manggala, a respected prince. He also had daughters who married into other royal families. One of them was Qutugh Kelmysh, who became queen of Goryeo after marrying Wang Ko, Chungnyeol of Goryeo.

Poetry

Kublai Khan was also a poet who wrote poems in Chinese. Most of his poems have been lost over time. One of his known poems is called "Inspiration recorded while enjoying the ascent to Spring Mountain." It is kept in a book of Yuan dynasty poems. He wrote this poem after visiting a Buddhist temple at the Summer Palace and climbing Longevity Hill on his way back to Beijing.

Legacy

Further information: Religion in the Mongol Empire

Kublai Khan became leader in 1260 and changed the Mongol Empire. Some Mongols did not agree with him at first, but his choice to support China made the empire famous worldwide. Under his rule and his family’s, China grew strong and united again.

Kublai’s government ruled places such as Tibet, Manchuria, and Mongolia from a city now called Beijing. His way of leading influenced later Chinese leaders, especially those of the Qing dynasty, as they grew into areas like Inner Asia.