Mongol invasion of Java

The Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan tried to invade the island of Java in 1293. Java is now part of Indonesia. The Yuan dynasty sent many soldiers. They wanted to punish the ruler of Singhasari, named Kertanegara, because he had refused their gifts and hurt a messenger.

However, when the soldiers arrived, Kertanegara had already been killed. The kingdom of Singhasari was now controlled by another kingdom called Kediri. The Yuan soldiers asked Kediri to work with them.

After a tough fight, Kediri agreed, but they were betrayed by their friend, the kingdom of Majapahit, led by a leader named Raden Wijaya. In the end, the Yuan soldiers could not win, but the new kingdom of Majapahit succeeded.

Background

Kublai, the leader of the Yuan dynasty, sent messengers to many lands and asked them to pay tribute and accept the rule of Yuan China. One of these messengers, Men-shi or Meng-qi (孟琪), was sent to Java (Singhasari). The king of Singhasari, Kertanegara, treated Men-shi very badly. This made Kublai Khan very angry, and he ordered an attack against Kertanegara in 1292.

The attack was meant to punish Singhasari and also to make nearby countries agree to Yuan control. This would help Yuan China control important sea trade routes. About 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers were gathered from places like Fujian, Jiangxi, and Huguang in southern China, along with many ships for the journey.

Before the Yuan forces arrived, big changes happened in Java. After winning a battle against Malayu Dharmasraya in Sumatra, Singhasari became powerful. But in 1292, Jayakatwang, a leader from Kediri, rebelled against Kertanegara. His forces attacked Singhasari from many directions. The capital city of Kutaraja was captured, and Kertanegara was killed. This ended the Singhasari Kingdom. Later, a new settlement called Majapahit was created by someone named Raden Wijaya.

Military composition

There were 5,000 soldiers led by Shi Bi, 2,000 from Fujian Province, and soldiers from Jiangxi, Fujian, and Huguang provinces. The soldiers likely wore simple armor and used weapons like long spears, axes, bows, and special throwing devices. They also had horses.

Records say the Javanese army had a very large number of soldiers, but modern thoughts believe it was closer to the same size as the Yuan army, around 20,000 to 30,000 men. The Javanese soldiers often had little armor, with many being temporary fighters. Some wore simple metal protection. Their ships were large and could carry many men, making their navy stronger than the Chinese ships at the time.

Invasion

The emperor of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, ordered an attack on the island of Java in March 1292. The Yuan forces sailed from Quanzhou along the coasts of Trần dynasty, Dai Viet, and Champa. They stopped at Ko-lan to plan. On January 22, 1293, a messenger took the emperor's orders to Java. The main fleet sailed to Karimun Jawa and then to Tuban. They may have damaged Tuban and nearby villages.

Arrival

When the Yuan army reached Java, Raden Wijaya sent a message saying that Kertanagara had been killed and that Jayakatwang was now the ruler. Wijaya joined forces with the Yuan army to fight Jayakatwang and gave them a map of the area Kalang. Wijaya attacked Jayakatwang but failed, so he asked the Yuan army for help. In return, the Yuan generals asked for his loyalty, which he promised.

Battle of the Kali Mas

On March 22, all troops gathered at Kali Mas. This river was the gateway to Java, and they planned to battle there. A Javanese minister tried to block the river with boats, but the Yuan commanders moved their troops forward. The minister abandoned his boats and fled. The Yuan forces seized many large boats.

Part of the army stayed to guard the river’s mouth, while the main troops moved forward. Raden Wijaya’s messenger told the Yuan army that the king of Kediri had chased him to Majapahit and asked for protection. Because they couldn’t locate Kediri’s army, the Yuan army went back to Kali Mas. When they learned the enemy would arrive that night, they moved toward Majapahit.

Attack by the Kediri

On April 14, Kediri’s army attacked from three directions. On April 15, the Yuan troops fought in different areas and defeated the enemy.

Battle of the Brantas

On April 22, the troops split into three groups to attack Kediri, planning to meet on April 26. The first group sailed along the river. The second, led by Yighmish, marched along the eastern bank, while the third, led by Gao Xing, marched along the western bank. Raden Wijaya and his troops followed behind.

Battle of Daha

See also: Battle of Daha

The army reached Daha on April 26. The prince of Kediri defended the city. After three attacks, Kediri forces fled. At the same time, Majapahit forces attacked and quickly defeated the guards. Raden Wijaya entered the palace and freed a princess who had been captured. King Jayakatwang retreated to his fortress but found it burned. The Yuan army surrounded Daha and called for the king to surrender. In the afternoon, Jayakatwang surrendered to the Mongols. The Yuan army captured Jayakatwang, his son, his wife, and all his officers.

Wijaya's ambushes against Yuan

After Jayakatwang was captured, Raden Wijaya returned to Majapahit, saying he needed to prepare his tribute. Wijaya asked the Yuan forces to come unarmed.

Two hundred unarmed Yuan soldiers went to Raden Wijaya's country, but Wijaya quickly turned against them and ambushed the group. He then attacked the main Yuan camp by surprise, killing many and forcing the rest to flee to their ships.

The Yuan forces had to leave because the winds that would carry them home were about to end. They sailed back to Quanzhou on May 31 and arrived in China in August 1293. They brought back some valuable items.

Aftermath

The three Yuan generals went back to their empire after losing many soldiers in an ambush. Shi Bi and Yighmish were punished but later forgiven. Gao Xing was rewarded for his work.

This failed invasion was the last one during Kublai Khan's rule. In contrast, Majapahit grew to become the strongest state in the area at the time. Although Kublai Khan planned another attack on Java with a much larger army, these plans were stopped after his death. Travelers later noted that Java had been attacked by the Mongols more than once.

This invasion might have been the first time gunpowder was used in the Nusantara archipelago. After the invasion, Javanese shipbuilders began using Chinese methods, creating a new type of ship that combined both Chinese and local techniques.

Legacy

The Mongols left two special writings on Serutu Island on February 25, 1293. These writings are called the Pasir Kapal and the Pasir Cina inscriptions.