Late antiquity

Late antiquity

Late antiquity was a time between classical antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. It usually started around the year 250 and ended around the year 750. This period covered much of the Mediterranean world, including parts of Europe and the Near East.

It was a time of big changes in politics and religion. The three major monotheistic religions—Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam—began or grew stronger. The Bible and the Quran were put together in their final forms during this time.

Politically, this was when the Western Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire ended. It was also when the Arab conquests began, and the Rashidun Caliphate was formed. The Byzantine Empire became more focused on its military and its Christian beliefs.

Culturally, late antiquity was a time of new ideas. New kinds of public buildings were built, like the Hagia Sophia. New literature and art also developed.

Terminology

The term "late antiquity" has been used by historians since the early 1900s. A book called The World of Late Antiquity by Peter Brown helped change how people think about this time. Instead of seeing it as a slow end to the classical world, Brown showed it as a time of new beginnings and changes.

This period links the later Roman Empire to the Early Middle Ages. Some writers point out that many ideas and traditions from the Christianized Roman Empire carried on, especially in the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Groups like the Ostrogoths and Visigoths also thought of themselves as continuing Roman traditions. While "late antiquity" suggests that classical traditions lasted into the Middle Ages, other terms like "Early Middle Ages" or "Migration Period" highlight a shift away from the classical past.

Main events

During the time of Diocletian, the Roman Empire changed a lot. He created a system with four emperors called the Tetrarchy. New leaders called the Sasanians took over from the Parthian leaders in Persia, causing wars between Rome and the Sasanians. Constantine the Great made Christianity legal with the Edict of Milan, and later Theodosius I made it the official religion.

In the 5th century, many tribes like the Germanic and Hunnic moved into the Roman Empire, causing big changes. Rome was taken over by groups such as the Visigoths and the Vandals. By 476, the western part of the Roman Empire fell apart. In the east, Constantinople became the new important city.

In the 6th century, the leader Justinian the Great brought back much of Italy and North Africa under Roman control. He built amazing structures like the Hagia Sophia and helped organize Roman laws. However, a big sickness called the Plague of Justinian caused many problems. Later, new groups from the Arabian Peninsula changed the world even more.

Religion

Main article: Christianity in late antiquity

One of the biggest changes during late antiquity was the growth of Abrahamic religions, such as Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and later Islam.

A key moment for the spread of Christianity happened when Emperor Constantine the Great became a Christian around 312. He made Christianity legal by signing the Edict of Milan in 313 with his co-ruler, Licinius. By the late 300s, Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, changing the way people lived.

Constantine played an important role in Christian history. He brought together leaders from across the church to discuss important beliefs at a meeting in Nicaea in 325. He also helped build important churches, like the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.

During this time, many new Christian ideas and ways of living grew. One big change was the start of Christian monasticism in the 200s. Monasticism, or living a simple life to focus on faith, became very popular and spread widely. Other new Christian groups and practices also appeared, shaping how Christians lived their lives.

Late antiquity also saw the end of the old Roman ways of worshipping many gods. Instead, there was a lot of mixing of different beliefs and new religious ideas. For example, Buddhism grew in places like India and along trade routes, and a belief system called Manichaeism spread from Mesopotamia.

Laity vs. clergy

In the 4th century, as Christianity became more accepted, a clear difference grew between ordinary people and church leaders. Many leaders chose not to marry and lived differently from most Romans. This set them apart as a special group in society.

The rise of Islam

Islam began in the 7th century. Its followers, led by Arab leaders, moved into areas controlled by the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire in Persia. They took over places like North Africa and parts of Spain, but were stopped by a leader named Charles Martel in what is now France.

Cities

The later Roman Empire was a network of cities. Archaeologists help us learn how these cities changed.

One big change was how spaces were used. Big open areas in homes and public buildings were split up, and shops moved into places that used to be public roads. Burials inside city limits showed how people were drawn to holy places and relics.

Rome’s population dropped a lot because its water systems broke during a war. Other cities, like Constantinople, also saw their numbers go down after a major disease outbreak. In Europe, many cities became smaller, and trade slowed down. In the East, cities like Constantinople stayed important for politics and religion longer. Some new cities were built for defense, and others grew because of new cultures arriving. Overall, this time brought big changes to how people lived in cities.

Sculpture and art

The art of late antiquity changed a lot from older Roman styles. Artists stopped focusing on realistic human bodies and started showing more spiritual ideas. They used mosaics, which are tiny square pieces that sparkle in the light, especially in churches. These mosaics told religious stories in a symbolic way.

Artists also made simpler and stiffer sculptures and carvings. For example, the Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs shows figures that do not look very natural. Early Christian art grew during this time, with new ways to show scenes from the Bible. Luxury items like fancy silver plates and detailed carvings became popular too.

Literature

Main article: Late antique literature

During late antiquity, literature changed in many ways. People used classical Greek and Latin less, and new languages like Syriac, Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Coptic became important for writing. Books began to be written in new ways, with summaries of older works and creative stories.

This time also had many Christian writers sharing their ideas. Famous writers included Eusebius of Caesarea, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome, and Augustine of Hippo. Some writers, like Ammianus Marcellinus and Procopius of Caesarea, kept the old style of writing alive.

Because of difficult times, books about military strategies became popular. One well-known book is the Strategikon, written by Emperor Maurice in the 6th century.

Christian writers also wrote about the story of creation from the book of Genesis. Basil of Caesarea and Jacob of Serugh were among those who wrote about these topics.