Mexican War of Independence

The Mexican War of Independence was a long struggle that helped Mexico become free from the Spanish Empire. It started in 1810 and ended in 1821 when Mexico said it was its own country. This war was not one big battle but many smaller fights happening at the same time, like a big revolution.

The war began because of big changes in Spain. In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain and put his brother in charge. This made many people in Spain and its colonies unhappy. New local groups called juntas tried to rule for the old Spanish king. In Mexico, these changes caused problems between leaders born in Mexico and those from Spain.

The first big call for independence was made by a priest named Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810. Hidalgo was later caught and executed, but the fight went on under other leaders like José María Morelos and Vicente Guerrero. Finally, in 1821, a former royal army leader named Agustín de Iturbide joined with Guerrero. Together, they made a plan called the Plan of Iguala and took control of Mexico City. The Spanish leader there signed a treaty to end the war, and Mexico became its own country.

Prior challenges to crown rule

Even after Mexico became part of Spain, some people thought about being their own nation. But these ideas were mostly among wealthy families. True attempts to challenge Spanish rule before 1810 were rare.

One early challenge happened in 1542 when new laws were introduced. This led to a plot involving Don Martín Cortés, the son of Hernán Cortés, but it was stopped, and the leaders were punished.

In 1624, some powerful people forced out a viceroy who tried to change unfair business practices. Later, in 1642, a man named William Lamport tried to start a rebellion to make Mexico independent, but he was caught and punished.

In 1692, a big riot broke out in Mexico City over high food prices. The government responded to stop any more uprisings.

These events showed that not everyone was happy with Spanish rule, but they were not part of a large movement for independence until later years.

Age of Revolution, Spain and New Spain

In the early 1800s, big changes were happening around the world. The Age of Revolution had begun. When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, it shocked Spain and its colonies, including Mexico.

Before this, Mexico — known then as New Spain — was part of the Spanish Empire. Spain had made changes called the Bourbon Reforms to strengthen its control. These changes took power away from local leaders and the Catholic church. They also sent much of Mexico's wealth back to Spain. This made many local leaders unhappy.

There were also differences in how people were treated. People born in Spain had more power. Those born in Mexico felt left out. There were cultural and religious differences too. All these tensions helped set the stage for Mexico to seek independence.

French invasion of Spain and political crisis in New Spain, 1808–1809

When France invaded Spain in 1808, it caused big problems in Spain and its colonies, including New Spain (now Mexico). The leader of New Spain, called the viceroy, was very important because he represented the king. But when the king was removed by France, people in New Spain began to wonder who should really be in charge.

Some people in New Spain wanted more self-rule and equality with Spain, but others did not agree. There was tension between different groups. A leader named José de Iturrigaray tried to find a solution, but he was overthrown by people who didn’t trust him. After this, new leaders took over, but many people felt they were not rightful rulers. This situation made some groups start planning ways to break away from Spanish control.

The Hidalgo revolt, 1810–1811

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla is seen as the father of Mexican independence. On September 16, 1810, he started an uprising that began the Mexican War of Independence. He inspired many ordinary people to join him, though he did not organize them well or have a clear battle plan. He wanted to end the old ways of ruling.

Hidalgo was a priest who spoke several languages and had many books. He joined with friends who wanted change. With a friend named Ignacio Allende, he planned to rise up against the rulers. When they were discovered, Hidalgo called for action on September 16, 1810, in Dolores, telling people to fight against bad leaders.

The uprising grew quickly as more people joined, using tools as weapons. They moved through towns, gathering followers. In Guanajuato on September 28, they fought against Spanish forces. The new leader of the area sent soldiers to stop them, but Hidalgo’s group kept growing.

Though Hidalgo’s followers were not well organized, they kept fighting. They took some cities but then moved back. Later, Hidalgo and his leaders were caught. They were tried and executed.

Insurgency in the South under Morelos, 1811–1815

After the main leaders of the fight for freedom were captured, the battle moved to the southern parts of Mexico. New leaders appeared in towns like Zitácuaro, Cuautla, and Antequera (now Oaxaca). Important people such as priests José María Morelos and Mariano Matamoros, along with Vicente Guerrero, Guadalupe Victoria, and Ignacio López Rayón, took control. They used smart, small-group fighting methods and made plans to guide their movement.

One leader, Ignacio López Rayón, had been in Saltillo, Coahuila, with many men and cannons. When he heard the main leaders were captured, he moved south to keep fighting. He fought in several battles and formed a group to lead the uprising. Father José María Morelos led many successful fights, capturing important places. Even when surrounded by enemy forces, Morelos’s troops stayed strong and kept winning.

Morelos did not want to be the top leader, but others saw him as the main military commander. He quickly organized things, removed Rayón from power, and in 1813, he brought together representatives of the uprising in a meeting called the Congress of Chilpancingo. At this meeting, Morelos clearly said that Mexico should be free and independent from Spain.

In November 1813, the Congress signed the first official document declaring Mexico’s independence. This document said Mexico was free from Spain and called for ending slavery and treating everyone equally, no matter where they came from. It also said that Mexico would have its own laws and rights.

The Congress chose Morelos to lead the government and the fight for independence. Sadly, the royal army changed its forces to stop the uprising. One of the uprising’s leaders, Mariano Matamoros, was captured. Morelos was later captured and executed. After his death, the fight went on with smaller, hidden groups.

Insurgency under Vicente Guerrero, 1815–1820

In 1815, Vicente Guerrero became an important leader fighting for Mexico to be free from Spain. From 1815 to 1821, most battles happened in the warm southern parts of Mexico and some areas in the north. In 1816, a Spanish military leader named Francisco Javier Mina joined the fight for independence. He and 300 men landed in Tamaulipas in April 1817 and fought for seven months before being captured.

Two important leaders emerged: Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in a village called Tixla. Both leaders were respected by their followers. The Spanish viceroy offered to forgive rebels who stopped fighting, and many did, but many later started fighting again. The Spanish army controlled the big cities, but many rural areas were unsafe. From 1816 to 1820, the fighting did not make much progress, with neither side winning clearly. Royalist officer Antonio López de Santa Anna led former rebels who had accepted forgiveness, chasing Guadalupe Victoria. Insurgents attacked important roads, making it hard for Spain to control trade.

During this time from 1816 to 1820, neither side could win. Insurgents used clever tactics, and Spanish forces became discouraged. Spain sent only a few new soldiers, though some senior officers arrived. By 1814, Spain had defeated Napoleon, and Ferdinand VII became king. He did not keep promises to share power. Spain did not send enough money to support the war, so many soldiers were not paid and stayed near safe places.

In December 1820, the viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a royalist Colonel Agustín de Iturbide to defeat Guerrero's forces. Iturbide, from Morelia, was known for his strong actions against earlier rebels. He was a favorite of the Mexican church and cared about tradition and property, but he was also unhappy about not being promoted or becoming wealthy.

Guerrero, Iturbide, and the Plan of Iguala

In 1820, big changes in Spain affected Mexico. Leaders in Spain changed the rules, and this news reached Mexico. One leader, Iturbide, saw this as a chance to help Mexico become independent. The army in Mexico was weak, and many soldiers went home. This gave rebels more space to plan.

Guerrero, a rebel leader, worried that rich families might take over. He met with Iturbide, and they made a plan called the Plan of Iguala. This plan promised three important things: Mexico would be independent, all people would be treated equally, and the Roman Catholic Church would stay important. Iturbide created a new army to support this plan, and many people joined because they liked these ideas. Though not everyone agreed, this plan helped bring Mexico closer to independence.

Collapse of imperial rule and independence

Iturbide convinced royalist officers to support independence, joining the mixed-race insurgent forces. Some royalist commanders left, while others were forgiven. In July 1821, the high military command in Mexico City removed the viceroy, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, and replaced him with an interim viceroy, royalist general Francisco Novella. By the time Juan O'Donojú became the new viceroy, almost the entire country backed the Plan of Iguala. Most soldiers joined Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees, and the Spanish cause was defeated. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown, including O'Donojú and Iturbide, signed the Treaty of Córdoba, recognizing Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala. O'Donojú then stepped down as viceroy. The Spanish government said O'Donojú couldn't sign the treaty, but Iturbide and the Army of Three Guarantees entered Mexico City on September 27, 1821. The next day, the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire was proclaimed. The Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba united insurgents and former royalists, leading to independence with little further fighting. After independence, disagreements between different groups quickly returned.

Creation of the First Mexican Empire

Main articles: Agustín de Iturbide and First Mexican Empire

On September 27, 1821, troops supporting independence entered Mexico City. The next day, Agustín de Iturbide announced that Mexico would no longer be part of Spain. A treaty was signed, but Spain did not agree to it. Iturbide made sure the new country could choose its own leader if no European royal would take the job.

In May 1822, people in Mexico asked Iturbide to become the leader of the new country. The following day, the government named him Emperor of Mexico. Later that year, Iturbide closed the government and put in place people who supported him.

Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico

Main article: Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico

Even after Mexico became its own country, Spain still kept a strong building at San Juan de Ulúa near Veracruz. Mexican forces took control of it on November 23, 1825. Spain tried to take Mexico back again. This led to the Battle of Tampico in 1829, where Spanish soldiers were trapped and had to surrender.

Finally, on December 28, 1836, Spain agreed that Mexico was independent through the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty. This made Mexico the first country Spain recognized as independent after losing a colony. Later, Ecuador also became independent in 1840.

Legacy

See also: Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010

In 1910, to mark 100 years since Mexico started its fight for freedom, President Porfirio Díaz opened a grand monument called the Angel of Independence in Paseo de la Reforma. This monument helped people remember Mexico's journey to becoming its own country.

Mexico became independent from Spain in September 1821, but people did not start celebrating this right away. The leader who helped Mexico gain independence, Iturbide, became the country's emperor but had to leave just two years later. Because of this, many people did not feel it was right to celebrate on the day his army entered Mexico City. Instead, people began celebrating on September 16 to remember the moment when a leader named Hidalgo called for Mexico to fight for its freedom.

During Díaz's time as leader from 1876 to 1911, big celebrations happened every year on September 15 and 16 in the main square of Mexico City, called the zócalo. People rang bells, including one famous bell that Hidalgo had used, to mark the occasion. These celebrations continue today as a way to honor Mexico's independence.