Oceania

Oceania is a region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. It is also called a continent, with mainland Australia as its big land area. Oceania is in both the Eastern and Western hemispheres. It has a land area of about 9,000,000 square kilometres and about 46.3 million people.

Oceania is the smallest and second-least populated continent after Antarctica. It has the world’s third-largest tropical rainforest, mostly on the island of New Guinea. The region has many different kinds of economies. Some places, like Australia, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, have strong economies. Other places, like Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Western New Guinea, have less developed economies.

People first lived in Australia and nearby islands more than 60,000 years ago. Europeans began exploring Oceania from the 16th century. Famous explorers like James Cook visited Tahiti and the east coast of Australia. When Europeans arrived, they changed the way of life in Oceania. The rock art of Aboriginal Australians is the longest-running art tradition in the world. Most countries in Oceania are democracies, and many Pacific islands rely on tourism for money.

Definition

Characteristics

Definitions of Oceania vary. The broadest definition includes the islands between mainland Asia and the Americas. The island nation of Australia is the only land in the area large enough to be called a continent. The culture of the people on these islands was often different from that of Asia and pre-Columbian America. Before Europeans arrived, the sea protected Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large landmasses and nearby islands. The islands of the Malay Archipelago, north of Australia, mainly sit on the continental shelf of Asia, so their people had more contact with mainland Asian culture.

The term Oceania is used because, unlike other continents, it is the ocean that connects the parts of the region. In the 19th century, many geographers divided Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions: Australasia, Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Oceania has traditionally been studied as a continent in anthropology, similar to Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

Boundaries

Islands at the far edges of Oceania are generally considered to be the Bonin Islands, a part of Japan; Hawaii, a state of the United States; Clipperton Island, belonging to France; Rapa Nui (Easter Island), belonging to Chile; and Macquarie Island, belonging to Australia.

United Nations interpretation

The United Nations (UN) has its own definition of Oceania since 1947, using four of the five subregions from the 19th century: Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. This definition includes specific political areas and excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island, and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island, which was annexed by Chile in 1888. It is used in statistical reports, by the International Olympic Committee, and by many atlases. The UN groups Oceania, and the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Their definition includes American Samoa, Australia and its territories, the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Guam, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands.

History

Main articles: History of Oceania and History of the Pacific Islands

Colonisation of Oceania

Australia

Main articles: Prehistory of Australia and History of Indigenous Australians

Indigenous Australians are the first people of Australia and nearby islands. They moved from Africa to Asia about 70,000 years ago and reached Australia around 50,000 years ago. They are among the earliest humans to leave Africa. They reached Tasmania about 40,000 years ago by crossing a land bridge during the last ice age.

Melanesia

Main article: History of New Guinea

The original people of Melanesia were likely the ancestors of today’s Papuan-speaking groups. They moved from Southeast Asia and settled these islands as far east as the Solomon Islands archipelago.

Micronesia

See also: History of the Federated States of Micronesia

Micronesia was settled thousands of years ago, but there are different ideas about when and how people first arrived. The earliest signs of life have been found on the island of Saipan, dating back to 1500 BCE or earlier. The people of Yap and Pohnpei created a centralized culture. The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands were the Chamorros, who arrived between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE from Southeast Asia.

Polynesia

Main articles: History of Hawaii and History of New Zealand

Further information: Polynesian navigation

The Polynesian people are part of the sea-migrating Austronesian people. They originated in the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan. Between 3000 and 1000 BCE, these people spread from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia.

European exploration

See also: Magellan expedition, Spanish East Indies, History of Australia (1788–1850), and Colony of New Zealand

Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese sailors reached the Maluku Islands, Timor, and parts of Papua New Guinea in the early 1500s. In 1519, a Spanish trip led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed through the strait that now bears his name and entered the Pacific Ocean.

European settlement and colonisation

See also: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of New Zealand

In 1788, Britain set up colonies in Australia, and later in New Zealand and Fiji. France declared Tahiti a protectorate in 1842. Germany set up colonies in New Guinea and Samoa in the late 1800s. The United States also grew its presence in the Pacific, with Hawaiʻi becoming a US territory in 1898.

Modern history

Main articles: Pacific War, Military history of Oceania, Military history of New Zealand, Military history of Australia during World War I, Military history of Australia during World War II, History of Guam, History of Australia (1901–1945), and Decolonisation of Oceania

In World War II, battles happened across Oceania. Australia and New Zealand became independent countries in the 20th century. Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. The Pacific Islands Forum was founded in 1971.

Geography

See also: List of Oceanian countries by population and List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania

The islands of Oceania stretch from New Guinea in the west to the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Most definitions of Oceania do not include Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Aleutian Islands, or other Alaskan or Canadian islands. Oceania’s islands reach from 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the Northern Hemisphere, and from 55 degrees south to Macquarie Island in the Southern Hemisphere.

Oceania’s islands are of four types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs, and uplifted coral platforms. High islands come from volcanoes, and some still have active ones. Examples include Bougainville, Hawaiʻi, and the Solomon Islands.

Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms. It includes Near Oceania in western Island Melanesia and Remote Oceania, which was settled more recently. Most Oceanian islands are in the South Pacific, but some are in the Southern Ocean or Indian Ocean, like Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands. The coral reefs of the South Pacific are built on old lava flows. The Great Barrier Reef off Australia is one of the most famous. Uplifted coral platforms are slightly larger than low coral islands, such as Banaba and Makatea in French Polynesia.

Regions

Micronesia lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line. It includes the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands, and the islands of Kiribati.

Melanesia is to the southwest and includes New Guinea, the world’s second largest island after Greenland. Other groups are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, and New Caledonia.

Polynesia stretches from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south. It includes Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga, the Kermadec Islands, the Cook Islands, Society Islands, Austral Islands, the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotus, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island.

Australasia includes Australia, New Zealand, and nearby Pacific islands. It sits mostly on the Indo-Australian Plate, bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south.

Geology

Main articles: Geography of Fiji, Geology of New Zealand, Geology of Australia, and Geography of Samoa

The Pacific Plate makes up most of Oceania. It is the largest tectonic plate and contains the Hawaiian Islands. It is mostly oceanic crust. Australia joined the Indo-Australian Plate 45 to 40 million years ago. Australia is old, flat, and stable, with most geological activity happening long ago when it was part of Gondwana.

New Zealand has many volcanic areas, earthquakes, and geothermal areas. Its rocks were once part of Gondwana. The landmass called Zealandia split from Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time.

Most Pacific islands are high islands like Easter Island, American Samoa, and Fiji. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands formed between 7 and 30 million years ago from shield volcanoes.

Flora

Main articles: Geography of Australia, Environment of New Zealand, Flora of Australia, Flora of New Zealand, Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands, and Domesticated plants of Austronesia

Australia has many different environments, from tropical rainforests in the northeast to deserts in the center. The outback is the large dry area. Plants in Australia have adapted to dry conditions and fire. Families like Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus), and Fabaceae (Acacia) are common.

New Zealand’s landscape varies from fjords in the southwest to tropical beaches in the north. The South Island has the Southern Alps, with many tall peaks including Aoraki / Mount Cook. Earthquakes happen often but are usually not strong. Hawaii has a special plant called Brighamia, which now needs humans to help it reproduce because its natural pollinator is gone.

Fauna

Main articles: Fauna of Australia, Birds of Australia, Birds of New Zealand, Fauna of New Zealand, Mammals of Australia, List of birds of Australia, List of birds of New Zealand, and Domesticated animals of Austronesia

Birds like the Pacific kingfisher, Red-vented bulbul, and Polynesian starling live in the Pacific Islands. In New Zealand, many birds evolved with few predators. Some famous birds are the kiwi, kea, and tūī. The tuatara is a unique reptile found only in New Zealand.

Australia has many marsupials, mammals that carry their young in a pouch, such as koalas and kangaroos. New Zealand has many special birds, including the flightless kākāpō and the kiwi.

Climate

Main articles: Climate of Australia, Climate of New Zealand, and Climate of Hawaii

The Pacific Islands have tropical rainforest and tropical savanna climate. The El Niño Southern Oscillation changes weather patterns. In Australia, most areas are dry or semi-arid, with temperate climates in the south and tropical in the north. New Zealand has a temperate maritime climate with rain on the West Coast and drier areas in Central Otago. Hawaii has many climates, from tropical to arid. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was 50.7 °C in South Australia, and the coldest was −25.6 °C in New Zealand.

Politics

Australia

Main article: Politics of Australia

Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III as the King of Australia. The King is represented by the Governor-General. Australia has two major political groups: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition, which includes the Liberal Party and the National Party.

New Zealand

Main article: Politics of New Zealand

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. Charles III is the King of New Zealand and the head of state, represented by the Governor-General. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power.

Pacific Islands

In Samoan politics, the Prime Minister of Samoa is the head of government. Politics of Tonga follows a constitutional monarchy with the King of Tonga as the Head of State.

Fiji has a multiparty system with the Prime Minister of Fiji as head of government. The executive power is exercised by the government, and legislative power is held by the Parliament of Fiji. Fiji's Head of State is the President.

In the politics of Papua New Guinea, the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom, represented by a Governor-General. In Kiribati, the President of Kiribati serves as both head of state and government.

New Caledonia is part of the French Republic, and its inhabitants are French citizens.

Hawaii is led by the Democratic Party. Its government has three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Oceania

Oceania has many different economies. Australia and New Zealand are highly developed, with strong economies. Australia has the biggest economy in the region. New Zealand is smaller but also very developed and trades a lot with other countries.

People in Australia work mostly in healthcare, retail, and education. The country makes things like cars, electrical equipment, and clothes. New Zealand’s economy is strong for its size, and it trades a lot, especially with Australia, China, and the United States. Many people in New Zealand work in tourism, which is a big part of the economy.

In the Pacific Islands, most people work in services like tourism and education. These islands export things like coconut, timber, beef, and fish. Fiji is one of the more developed Pacific island economies, with tourism and sugar being important. Hawaii’s economy has changed over time, with tourism now being very important. Many tourists visit places like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and Milford Sound in New Zealand.

Tourism

Further information: Tourism in Australia and Tourism in New Zealand

Tourism is very important for many places in Oceania. Australia gets many tourists to see places like the Sydney Opera House and the Great Barrier Reef. New Zealand attracts visitors to Milford Sound and other beautiful spots. Fiji welcomes many tourists each year, many from Australia. Vanuatu is known for its scuba diving and has been a location for TV shows.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Oceania

The table below shows the subregions and countries of Oceania. The countries and areas are grouped by the United Nations.

Largest city for regions

• Australasia (largest city: Sydney)
• Melanesia (largest city: Jayapura)
• Micronesia (largest city: Dededo)
• Polynesia (largest city: Auckland)

Cities by metropolitan area

Religion

Main article: Religion in Oceania

Most people in Oceania are Christians. Some areas also follow older traditions. In Australia and New Zealand, many people say they have "no religion". In Tonga, life is shaped by Polynesian traditions and Christian beliefs.

Some people practice Hinduism, especially in Fiji. Other religions in the area include Islam and Buddhism.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Oceania

Oceania has many languages. Three big groups are:

• The Austronesian language family, like Fijian, Māori, and Hawaiʻian
• The Aboriginal Australian languages
• The Papuan languages of New Guinea

People from other places also speak their own languages. Common ones are English, French, and Japanese. There are also mixed languages, called Creoles, like Tok Pisin.

Immigration

Main articles: Post-war immigration to Australia, Immigration to Australia, Immigration to New Zealand, Refugees in Australia, Refugees in New Zealand, and Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)

Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii are very mixed, with people from many backgrounds. Many people have moved there from Asia and other places.

Sydney is a very mixed city, with many languages spoken. Melbourne also has many people from different places.

New Zealand has many people born in other countries, especially in Auckland.

Hawaii has many people of Asian ancestry, such as Filipino, Japanese, Korean, and Chinese. Many came to work long ago. Portuguese people also came to work.

Archaeogenetics

Studies show that Oceania was settled in two big waves of people. The first group arrived long ago. A second group arrived much later and spread across the Pacific.

Much of New Guinea is still not fully explored because of thick forests and tall mountains. Some tribes there have had little contact with the rest of the world. The Indonesian areas of Papua and West Papua have many tribes that are not well known.

Culture

Australia

Main articles: Culture of Australia and Cuisine of Australia

Australian culture has been shaped mainly by Anglo-Celtic and Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. It has developed its own unique style. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has also had a big impact, especially through TV and movies. Other influences come from nearby Asian countries and immigrants from many places. The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906) was the world’s first feature length film, starting a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in Oceania. Sydney’s New Year's Eve celebrations are the biggest in Oceania.

Australia is famous for its cafe and coffee culture in cities. Australia and New Zealand created the flat white coffee. Indigenous Australians traditionally ate local animals and plants, called bush tucker. The first settlers brought British food, like the Sunday roast, which is now a typical Australian meal. Later immigrants from many countries changed Australian food, bringing in new dishes and styles.

Hawaii

Main articles: Culture of Hawaii, Cuisine of Hawaii, and Hawaiian religion

Hawaii’s music includes traditional and modern styles, from native Hawaiian folk music to rock and hip hop. Hawaii’s music has had a big influence on the music of the United States, even though the state is small. Styles like slack-key guitar are famous worldwide, and Hawaiian music often appears in Hollywood movies. Hawaii also helped develop country music with the steel guitar. The Hawaiian religion believes in many gods and spirits, including spirits in animals, waves, and the sky.

The cuisine of Hawaii mixes foods brought by many immigrants, including Polynesians, native Hawaiians, and people from Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian, and Portuguese backgrounds.

New Zealand

Main articles: Culture of New Zealand and Cuisine of New Zealand

New Zealand’s culture is Western, influenced by the indigenous Māori people and many immigrants. The Māori are one of the major cultures of Polynesia. New Zealand remembers important days like Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and celebrates holidays such as the King's Birthday and Christmas. New Zealand’s music industry grew from 1940, with many artists finding success in Britain and the United States. Some songs are in the Māori language, and traditional Māori dance and song called kapa haka is popular again. New Zealand’s scenery has attracted big movies like Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, and The Hobbit.

New Zealand’s food includes native Māori dishes and foods from settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia. Local foods include lamb, salmon, koura (crayfish), whitebait, shellfish, kumara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo, and pavlova, which is considered a national dish.

Samoa

Main articles: Culture of Samoa and Polynesian culture

The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, is still very important in Samoa. Despite outside influences, Samoa keeps its old customs, social systems, and language. Important events include the Samoa 'ava ceremony, a solemn ritual. Valuable cultural items include the finely woven 'ie toga. Samoan dance, called siva, tells stories through gentle movements. Male dances can be more lively. The sasa is a group dance with fast, synchronised moves to drum or mat rhythms. Another male dance, the fa'ataupati, makes rhythmic sounds by slapping the body.

Arts

Art in Oceania varies greatly across cultures and regions, often featuring themes of fertility or the supernatural. Common art forms include petroglyphs, tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work. Indigenous Australian rock art is the oldest continuous art tradition in the world, dating back about 60,000 years. Sculpture in Oceania first appeared in New Guinea as stone figures. By about 1500 BCE, the Lapita culture began spreading to remote islands. By about 1500 BCE, people on Easter Island started building nearly 900 moai (large stone statues). Around 1200 CE, people on Pohnpei began building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and canals. Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth, and tattoos. Native Hawaiians did not have metal or woven cloth.

Sport

See also: Sport in Oceania

Rugby union is a major sport in the region and the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga. In Australia, the most popular sport is cricket, with their national team winning the Cricket World Cup five times. Among Australian women, netball is most popular, while Australian rules football draws the largest crowds and TV viewers. Rugby union is the top sport in New Zealand, and they have won the Rugby World Cup three times. Australia’s the Wallabies have won the World Cup twice. In Papua New Guinea, Rugby league is the most popular sport. Fiji's sevens team and New Zealand's are among the best in the world.

Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru. It is also popular in Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. The top league is the Australian Football League (AFL), which was one of the most attended leagues in the world in the 2010s.

Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania where association football is the national sport. It is also popular in Kiribati, Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu, and is growing in popularity in Australia. In 2006, Australia moved from the Oceania Football Confederation to the Asian Football Confederation, and their men’s team the Socceroos has qualified for every FIFA World Cup since then as an Asian team. Kiribati is the only Micronesian country in the OFC but is not recognised by FIFA. Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Palau do not participate due to lack of facilities and distance. Australia has hosted two Summer Olympics: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000, and Brisbane will host the 2032 edition. Australia has hosted five Commonwealth Games, and New Zealand three. The Pacific Games is a multi-sport event for Pacific countries, similar to the Olympics but smaller. Australia and New Zealand joined in 2015.

Melbourne holds the Australian Open each year, one of tennis’s four Grand Slam tournaments.