Philistines

The Philistines were an ancient people who lived along the southern coast of Canaan during the Iron Age. They were organized into a group of city-states called Philistia.

They are often remembered for their conflicts with the Israelites, as described in the Hebrew Bible. Eventually, the Philistines were conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and their distinct identity faded away.

Name

See also: Timeline of the name Palestine

The word Philistine in English comes from older languages. It began in Hebrew as Pəlištī, meaning "people of Pəlešeṯ." The idea then moved into Late Greek, Classical Latin, Old French, and finally into English. We do not know what the Philistines called themselves.

History

During a big change called the Late Bronze Age collapse, groups of sea travelers known as the Sea Peoples attacked places like ancient Egypt and others around the Eastern Mediterranean. Their origins are not well known, but they likely came from areas around Southern Europe and West Asia, including places like the Aegean and islands in the East Mediterranean. Egypt defended against these attacks, especially in a famous battle around 1175 BC. Egyptian records mention one group of these sea travelers as the pwrꜣsꜣtj, which many believe were the Philistines.

By around the 12th century BC, objects and pottery made by the Philistines began appearing in areas of Canaan, especially in places that would later become their main cities like Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, and Gath. These cities formed a group known as the pentapolis. The Philistines often had conflicts with the Israelites. Over time, the Philistines faced invasions from powerful empires. The Assyrians took control in the 8th century BC, and later the Babylonians destroyed many Philistine cities around 604/603 BC. Many Philistines were killed or taken away to other lands, marking the end of their presence in history.

Biblical accounts

The Bible tells stories about the Philistines, an ancient group of people who lived near the southern coast of Canaan. According to the Book of Genesis, some believe the Philistines came from groups called the Casluhim or Caphtorim. Others think they had a different background.

In the Bible, the Philistines often appear as enemies of the Israelites. They lived in five main cities: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath. The Bible describes battles between the Israelites and the Philistines. One famous story is how David fought and defeated a Philistine warrior named Goliath.

The Philistines were sometimes friends and sometimes enemies of the Israelites. For example, Abraham and later Isaac made agreements with Philistine leaders. Over time, the Philistines were conquered by bigger empires and eventually disappeared as a separate group.

Origin

There are different ideas about where the Philistines came from. The Hebrew Bible says they came from a place called Caphtor, which might be Crete/Minoa. Some stories say they came from Casluhim, one of the groups led by Miṣrayim. The Septuagint links the Philistines to groups like the Caphtorim and the Cherethites and Pelethites, which might be connected to the island of Crete.

Most scholars think the Philistines came from Greece, especially from Crete and other Aegean Islands, or from modern-day Greece. Some others think these similarities just happened because the Philistines lived near other groups for a long time.

Since 1846, experts have linked the Philistines to people called "Peleset" mentioned in old Egyptian writings.

In Syria, there are old writings mentioning a place called Walistina or Palistina, which sounds like "Philistines." In 2003, a statue of a king named Taita was found, and some think this place was called Palistin.

Some think the name "Philistine" might come from a Greek word meaning "tribe of the hearth." However, this idea is debated.

A study of bones from Ashkelon in 2019 found that the Philistines had ancestry from both the local area and Southern Europe. This supports the idea that people from Europe moved to the area around the 12th century BC. Over time, the Philistines mixed with local people, but kept their own culture and identity for many centuries.

Modern experts agree the Philistines were different from nearby groups. They arrived around the 12th century BC and had customs, writing, and food like pork that were unlike their neighbors.

Archaeological evidence

Territory

Main article: Philistia

According to Joshua 13:3 and 1 Samuel 6:17, the land of the Philistines, called Philistia, included five city-states: Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, and Gath. These cities stretched from Wadi Gaza in the south to the Yarqon River in the north.

Tell Qasile (a "port city") and Aphek were on the northern edge of Philistine land. The location of Gath is now thought to be at the site of Tell es-Safi.

Egyptian inscriptions

Since 1846, scholars have linked the biblical Philistines with the Egyptian "Peleset" inscriptions. The evidence for these connections is based on language and has been debated.

Based on the Peleset inscriptions, it has been suggested that the Casluhite^{[citation needed]} Philistines were part of the "Sea Peoples" who attacked Egypt. Though they were defeated by Ramesses III, he resettled them to rebuild coastal towns in Canaan. Papyrus Harris I describes Ramesses III's achievements. Some scholars suggest these "strongholds" became the five cities of the Philistines. Israel Finkelstein has suggested a period of 25–50 years after the cities were sacked before the Philistines reoccupied them.

The "Peleset" appear in texts from the time of the New Kingdom. The inscriptions at Medinet Habu and the Rhetorical Stela at Deir al-Medinah date to the reign of Ramesses III (1186–1155 BC). Another was composed after Ramesses III's death (Papyrus Harris I). The fourth, the Onomasticon of Amenope, dates to between the end of the 12th or early 11th century BC.

The inscriptions at Medinet Habu show images of a coalition of Sea Peoples, including the Peleset, defeated by Ramesses III. In about 1175 BC, Egypt faced a large invasion by the "Sea Peoples," including the Tjeker, the Shekelesh, the Deyen, the Weshesh, the Teresh, the Sherden, and the PRST. They were defeated by Ramesses III, who fought them in "Djahy" and at "the mouths of the rivers" (the Nile Delta). Scholars cannot agree on which images match which peoples. A separate relief shows a captive Peleset chief. This has led to theories that Ramesses III defeated the Sea Peoples, including Philistines, and settled them in southern Canaan, or that the Philistines invaded and settled the coastal plain themselves. The soldiers were tall and clean-shaven. They wore breastplates and short kilts, and carried small shields, straight swords, and spears. They used chariots drawn by two horses.

The Rhetorical Stela mentions the Peleset with a people called the Teresh, who sailed "in the midst of the sea". The Teresh are thought to have come from the Anatolian coast.

The Harris Papyrus recalls Ramesses III's battles with the Sea Peoples, saying the Peleset were "reduced to ashes." The Papyrus Harris I records how defeated foes were brought to Egypt and settled in fortresses. The Harris papyrus can be interpreted in two ways: either the captives were settled in Egypt and the Philistines carved out a territory in Canaan, or Ramesses settled the Sea Peoples (mainly Philistines) in Canaan as mercenaries. Egyptian strongholds in Canaan are mentioned, including a temple dedicated to Amun, possibly in Gaza; however, the lack of detail means it is unknown what impact these had on Philistine settlement.

The only mention of the Peleset with any of the five cities said to make up the Philistine pentapolis comes in the Onomasticon of Amenope. The sequence has been translated as: "Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gaza, Assyria, Shubaru [...] Sherden, Tjekker, Peleset, Khurma [...]" Scholars suggest the other Sea Peoples mentioned may have been connected to these cities.

Material culture: Aegean origin and historical evolution

Aegean connection

Many scholars believe the ceramic and technological evidence suggests the Philistines formed part of a large immigration to southern Canaan from Anatolia and Cyprus in the 12th century BC.

The proposed connection between Mycenaean culture and Philistine culture is supported by finds at Ashdod, Ekron, Ashkelon, and Gath. Early Philistine pottery was a local version of Aegean Mycenaean Late Helladic IIIC pottery, decorated in brown and black. This later became the distinctive Philistine pottery of the Iron Age I, with black and red decorations on white slip known as Philistine Bichrome ware. A large building discovered at Ekron had broad walls, a wide entrance, and a large hall with a circular hearth, similar to Mycenaean megaron halls. Among the finds were three small bronze wheels with eight spokes, used for portable cultic stands in the Aegean region. This building may have served cultic functions. An inscription in Ekron to PYGN or PYTN may refer to "Potnia", a Mycenaean goddess. Excavations in Ashkelon, Ekron, and Gath revealed dog and pig bones showing signs of butchering, suggesting these animals were part of the diet. There were also wineries and loom weights resembling those of Mycenaean sites in Greece. Burial practices in a Philistine cemetery at Ashkelon also showed Aegean influences.

However, some scholars note the "difficulty of associating pots with people", suggesting alternatives like potters following markets or technology transfer. They emphasize continuities with the local world in the material remains of the coastal area identified with "Philistines". The view is that 'kings come and go, but cooking pots remain', suggesting the foreign Aegean elements may have been a minority. However, other elements of Philistine material culture like language, art, technology, architecture, rituals, and administrative practices are rooted in Cypriot and Minoan civilizations, supporting the view that the Philistines were connected to the Aegean.

Following DNA sequencing, DNA testing has concluded there was a notable surge of immigration from the Aegean, supporting the theory that the Philistine people were initially migrants from Europe.

Geographic evolution

Material culture evidence, mainly pottery styles, indicates the Philistines first settled in a few sites in the south, such as Ashkelon, Ashdod and Ekron. About 1150 BC, they expanded into areas such as the Yarkon region to the north (the area of modern Jaffa), with Philistine farmsteads at Tel Gerisa and Aphek, and a larger settlement at Tel Qasile. Most scholars believe the settlement of the Philistines happened in two stages. In the first, during the reign of Ramesses III, they were limited to the coastal plain, the region of the Five Cities; in the second, after the collapse of Egyptian control in southern Canaan, their influence spread inland. By the 10th to 7th centuries BC, the distinctiveness of Philistine material culture had blended with that of surrounding peoples.

Early connections

There is evidence that Cretans traded with Levantine merchants since the Neolithic Minoan era, increasing in the Early Bronze Age. In the Middle Bronze Age, coastal plains in the southern Levant prospered due to trade with the Aegean, Cypriot, and Egyptian civilizations.

The Cretans also influenced the architecture of Middle Bronze Age Canaanite palaces such as Tel Kabri. Dr. Assaf Yasur-Landau of the University of Haifa said that "it was, without doubt, a conscious decision made by the city's rulers who wished to associate with Mediterranean culture and not adopt Syrian and Mesopotamian styles of art like other cities in Canaan did; the Canaanites were living in the Levant and wanted to feel European."

Burial practices

The Leon Levy Expedition, consisting of archaeologists from Harvard University, Boston College, Wheaton College and Troy University, conducted a 30-year investigation of Philistine burial practices by excavating a Philistine cemetery with over 150 burials from the 11th to 8th century BC at Tel Ashkelon. In July 2016, the expedition announced the results of their excavation.

Archaeological evidence from architecture, burial arrangements, ceramics, and pottery fragments with non-Semitic writing indicates the Philistines were not native to Canaan. Most of the 150 dead were buried in oval-shaped graves, some in ashlar chamber tombs, and four were cremated. These burial arrangements were common in Aegean cultures but not in Canaan. Lawrence Stager of Harvard University believes Philistines arrived in Canaan by ship before the Battle of the Delta (c. 1175 BC). DNA was extracted from the skeletons for archaeogenetic population analysis.

The Leon Levy Expedition helped challenge previous assumptions that the Philistines were uncultured by finding evidence of perfume near the bodies for the deceased to smell in the afterlife.

Population

The population of the area associated with Philistines is estimated to have been around 25,000 in the 12th century BC, rising to a peak of 30,000 in the 11th century BC. The Canaanite nature of the material culture and toponyms suggest much of this population was indigenous, so the migrant element was likely less than half the total, and perhaps much less.

Language

Main article: Philistine language

Virtually nothing is known for certain about the Philistine language. Pottery fragments from around 1500–1000 BC have inscriptions in non-Semitic languages, including one in a Cypro-Minoan script. The Bible does not mention language problems between Israelites and Philistines, unlike with other groups during Assyrian and Babylonian occupations. Later, under the Achaemenids, Nehemiah 13:23-24 records that Judean men who married women from Moab, Ammon, and Philistine cities had children who could only speak their mothers' language, Ašdōdīṯ, not Judean Hebrew (Yehūdīṯ). There is limited evidence suggesting the Philistines were originally Indo-European-speakers, either from Greece or Luwian speakers from the coast of Asia Minor, based on some Philistine-related words in the Bible not related to other Semitic languages. Theories suggest Semitic elements in the language were borrowed from neighbors. For example, the Philistine word for captain, "seren", may relate to the Greek word tyrannos (thought to have been borrowed by Greeks from an Anatolian language, such as Luwian or Lydian). Most Philistine names are Semitic (such as Ahimelech, Mitinti, Hanun, and Dagon) but some, like Goliath, Achish, and Phicol, appear non-Semitic, with Indo-European origins suggested. Recent finds of inscriptions in Hieroglyphic Luwian in Palistin support a connection between the kingdom of Palistin and the Philistines of the southwestern Levant.

Religion

Main article: Canaanite religion

The deities worshipped in the area included Baal, Ashteroth (that is, Astarte), Asherah, and Dagon. The Philistines may also have worshipped Qudshu and Anat. Beelzebub, a supposed form of Baal, is described in the Hebrew Bible as the patron deity of Ekron, though no evidence of such a god or his worship has been found, and the name Baal-zebub may be an intentional distortion by the Israelites. Another name, found on the Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription, is PT[-]YH, unique to the Philistine sphere and possibly representing a goddess, though its exact identity is debated.

Although the Bible cites Dagon as the main Philistine god, there is little evidence they particularly worshipped him. No evidence of Dagon worship has been found at Philistine sites, and theophoric names invoking the deity are absent in known Philistine names. Dagon-worship was probably not unknown among the Philistines, as mentions of a city called Beth Dagon in Assyrian, Phoenician, and Egyptian sources may imply the god was venerated in some parts of Philistia. The inscription of the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II, dating to the 6th century BC, calls Jaffa, a Philistine city, one of the "mighty lands of Dagon", though this does not clarify the god's importance to the Philistine pantheon.

The most common religious artefacts from Philistine sites are goddess figurines/chairs, sometimes called Ashdoda. This suggests a dominant female figure, consistent with Ancient Aegean religion.

Economy

Cities excavated in Philistine areas show evidence of careful town planning, including industrial zones. The olive industry of Ekron included about 200 olive oil installations. Engineers estimate the city's production may have been over 1,000 tons, 30 percent of Israel's present-day production.

There is evidence for a large industry in fermented drink. Finds include breweries, wineries, and shops selling beer and wine. Beer mugs and wine kraters are among the most common pottery finds.

The Philistines were skilled metalworkers, as complex items of gold, bronze, and iron have been found at Philistine sites from the 12th century BC, including weapons.