Roman Britain

Roman Britain was the part of the island of Great Britain that became a Roman province called Britannia after the Romans came. The Romans first arrived in Britain in 55 and 54 BC when Julius Caesar landed there during his wars in Gaul. He said the Britons had been influenced by a group called the Belgae, and he chose a Celtic king named Mandubracius to lead the Trinovantes before leaving.

Real Roman rule started in AD 43 when the emperor Claudius sent four armies to invade Britain. They came to help a king named Verica of the Atrebates who had been forced out. The Romans fought the Catuvellauni and set up their province of Britain. Over the next years, they moved further into the land, building towns and roads and changing many things.

Roman leaders like Gnaeus Julius Agricola led the army north into places like Caledonia, fighting battles such as the Battle of Mons Graupius. To protect their lands, the Romans built big walls like Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall. They also split Britain into smaller parts to make it easier to govern.

During their time in Britain, the Romans brought new ways of farming, building cities, making things, and designing buildings. People from many parts of the Roman Empire moved to Britain, and a special mix of Roman and British culture grew. After about 400 years, around AD 410, the Romans left Britain, and the land began to change in new ways.

History

Early contact

Britain was known in the ancient world. Traders from Greece, Phoenicia, and Carthage bought tin from places like Cornwall as early as the 4th century BC. Greek writers called these areas the “tin islands.” Explorers like the Greek Pytheas visited during this time.

The Romans first came to Britain in 55 and 54 BC when Julius Caesar invaded. He was fighting tribes in Gaul who were getting help from Britain. Caesar’s first trip was mostly to look around, but he did land in Kent and fight some local tribes. Even though he didn’t win any big battles, Rome celebrated his visit.

On his second trip, Caesar brought more soldiers. He made some local kings agree to give up hostages and pay tribute. One friendly king, Mandubracius, was put in charge, while another leader, Cassivellaunus, was forced to stop fighting. Caesar didn’t take any land or leave soldiers behind, but he made Britain start trading with Rome.

Roman invasion

In AD 43, the Romans decided to invade Britain for real. The leader was Aulus Plautius, but we don’t know exactly how many soldiers came. They landed in Kent, probably at Richborough. The Roman soldiers fought two big battles against the Catuvellauni tribe and their allies. One leader, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus kept fighting.

The Romans kept moving forward until they reached the city of Camulodunum (Colchester). After this, the Romans set up friendly kings in some areas and made peace with others.

Establishment of Roman rule

After taking control of southern Britain, the Romans looked toward Wales. Tribes like the Silures, Ordovices, and Deceangli kept fighting back. Caratacus, who led the Silures, used clever tactics. Finally, in 51 AD, a Roman general caught Caratacus in a battle and captured him. Caratacus was taken to Rome, where he spoke so well that the emperor let him live.

Later, a leader named Boudica from the Iceni tribe rebelled against the Romans. After her husband died, the Romans took their land and treated Boudica harshly. She led a big revolt that destroyed several Roman towns. The Roman general caught up with her forces and won a battle. Boudica died shortly after.

Occupation of and retreat from southern Scotland

For many years, Rome kept soldiers in Britain to protect it. Governors sometimes became important leaders in the Roman Empire. One governor, Agricola, led soldiers into Scotland in 84 AD and won a battle. After this, Rome decided to pull back from most of Scotland and focus on areas south of the Cheviot Hills.

Rome built walls like Hadrian’s Wall to mark their border and protect against attacks. Sometimes, tribes from Scotland attacked, and Rome had to send more soldiers to defend their lands.

Third century

During the 3rd century, Rome had many problems in other parts of the empire, but Britain stayed mostly peaceful. However, there were economic troubles, like rising prices. In 259 AD, a man named Postumus broke away from Rome and ruled Britain for a while, but he was defeated in 274 AD.

In 286 AD, a commander named Carausius took control of Britain and parts of Gaul. He was later overthrown, and Rome took back control.

Fourth-century government

By 312 AD, Britain was split into four main areas for easier control. Each area had its own leader, and a main official called the vicarius ran things from London. Soldiers were separated from civilian leaders, with a military commander called the Dux in charge of protecting the borders.

Fourth-century history

In the middle of the 4th century, Britain faced attacks from Saxon raiders in the east and Scoti (from Ireland) in the west. Forts were built along the coast for defense, but in 367 AD, a big attack overwhelmed Roman forces. A Roman general named Theodosius helped restore order and reorganize the defenses.

End of Roman rule

By the early 5th century, Roman control in Britain weakened. Many Roman soldiers left, and local leaders took over. In 410 AD, Rome stopped sending help or soldiers. British leaders had to defend themselves. Over time, new groups like the Saxons moved in, and many British people moved to places like Brittany in France.

Some towns stayed active for a while, but life changed greatly after Rome left. The years following Roman rule are known as Sub-Roman Britain, a time when new kingdoms began to form.

Trade

See also: Trade between Iron Age Britain and the Roman world

When Rome ruled Britain, trade happened mostly across the North Sea and the English Channel, especially near the Strait of Dover. Important ports in Britain were London and Richborough. Places like Boulogne, Domburg, and Colijnsplaat near the Scheldt River were important for trading on the continent.

Britain got many things from other lands, such as coins, pottery from Gaul, olive oil from Spain in special containers, wine from Gaul, salted fish from the western Mediterranean and Brittany, and quern-stones from Mayen. Britain sent out metals like silver and gold, along with farm goods, oysters, salt, and coins, to trade for these items. Much of this trade was managed by private businesses and the Roman government to help soldiers and officials in Britain. Over time, Britain started to use more of its own products, which changed how trade worked.

Economy

See also: Roman economy and Mining in Roman Britain

The Romans found clever ways to dig for gold, like at the Dolaucothi gold mine. They used water from aqueducts to wash away soil and find gold. They also worked in places like the Wealden for iron and the Mendip Hills for lead and silver.

In later years, Britain grew rich from farming and trade. Towns sold goods like pottery, and Britain sent grain to other lands. The economy was strong, with many kinds of work and trade linking even faraway areas.

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

In the Roman Empire, places that needed soldiers were led by the Emperor. These places were managed by special leaders called governors. Governors were chosen for their skills in fighting and managing. In Britain, the governor's job was to keep safety and help with many tasks. This included talking with local kings, building roads, making sure messages could travel fast, watching over local groups, and solving big legal problems. When not busy, the governor would travel to listen to people's problems and find new soldiers.

Governors had helpers for legal matters and people who managed money. Each group of soldiers, called a legion, had its own leader who reported to the governor. These leaders would stay in different places for two to three years. There were also many workers who helped with gathering information, sending messages to Rome, organizing supplies, and handling prisoners. Soldiers also helped with paperwork.

The city of London became an important center because of its trade connections. Different areas in Britain had their own local leaders who made decisions about community and legal matters. Each year, these areas would meet to show loyalty to the Roman Empire, ask the Emperor for help when needed, and honor the Emperor.

Demographics

Roman Britain had about 3 million people by the end of the second century. By the end of the fourth century, the population grew to about 3.6 million, including soldiers and their families. The main city, Londinium, had about 60,000 people.

Londinium was a busy city with people from many parts of the Roman Empire, including continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Other towns also had people from many places, showing how big the Roman world was.

Further information: Roman sites in Great Britain, Roman cities in Britain, List of Roman villas in England, and List of Roman place names in Britain

The Romans built many towns in Britain, and some are still important today. These towns were places for trade and government. Some towns were carefully planned with straight streets, while others grew around camps or crossroads. Many of these places kept their Roman names even after the Romans left.

Religion

Further information: Romano-Celtic temple

Pagan

Main articles: Ancient Celtic religion and Religion in ancient Rome

The druids, priests of the Celtic people, were not allowed under Roman rule. They tried to protect their special places called sacred groves on the island of Mona (Anglesey), but the Romans destroyed them. People in Britain kept worshipping their own Celtic gods, like Ancasta, but often mixed them with Roman gods, such as Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

People still followed some old traditions, like the number three being important or using special water places such as springs. They built temples for the Roman emperor, especially at army sites.

Some new religions, such as Mithraism, became popular, especially among soldiers. Examples include the London Mithraeum and temples at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall and at Segontium in Roman Wales.

Christianity

Main article: Christianity in Roman Britain

It is unclear exactly when Christianity began in Britain. A special square made of words was found in Mamucium, the Roman name for Manchester. This square might be one of the earliest signs of Christianity in Britain.

Archaeological signs of Christian communities start showing up in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small wooden churches might have existed in Lincoln and Silchester. By the 4th century, Britain had bishops attending important meetings, showing an organized Christian church. Christianity became legal in the Roman Empire and became well established by the 5th century.

Environmental changes

The Romans brought new plants and animals to Britain. They may have introduced a type of nettle called Roman nettle and a special kind of edible snail. They might have also brought smaller rabbits from the Mediterranean area. A common rabbit found in Britain today likely came later, after the year 1066. Another plant, box, became more common in towns and homes during Roman times.

Legacy

The Romans built many roads in Britain, and some of these roads are still used today. They also made systems for clean water and dealing with waste to keep cities healthy. Important cities like London, Manchester, and York started as Roman towns. Many of these old towns were left behind after the Romans went away.

Britain's main language today, English, comes from the languages of tribes who arrived after the Romans. Before them, people spoke a language called Common Brittonic, which later became languages such as Welsh and Cornish. Some Latin words from the Romans mixed into these older British languages.