Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Romance of the Three Kingdoms (traditional Chinese: 三國演義; simplified Chinese: 三国演义; pinyin: Sānguó Yǎnyì) is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It tells the story of a time long ago, during the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period.

The book mixes real history with exciting stories. It focuses on three big groups that fought for power after the Han dynasty fell. These groups were Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The story shows their battles and clever plans.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is considered one of the greatest books ever written in Chinese literature. Many people in East Asia love this book, and it is often compared to the works of Shakespeare in English literature. It is also very well known in Southeast Asia.

Origins and versions

Stories about brave heroes from the Three Kingdoms period were popular during the Sui and Tang dynasties (6th–10th centuries). During the Song dynasty (10th–13th centuries), storytellers shared tales about these heroes. The earliest book to collect these stories was called Sanguozhi Pinghua and was published between 1321 and 1323.

The book Romance of the Three Kingdoms is often said to be written by Luo Guanzhong, a playwright from the late Yuan to early Ming period (around 1315–1400). It was first printed in 1522 as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi. The story uses historical records, mainly the Records of the Three Kingdoms written by Chen Shou in the 3rd century. These records cover events from the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 to the unification under the Jin dynasty in 280.

The version most people know today was edited by Mao Lun and his son Mao Zonggang. They made the story shorter with 120 chapters and changed some parts to improve how it reads. They also added famous opening lines and a special poem to start the book. Different editions of the book had illustrations of scenes, showing important moments and characters in the story.

Plot

The story happens during the end of the Han dynasty in China. At this time, the government was corrupt and full of fighting for power. Many local leaders, called warlords, had their own armies and fought for control. The people suffered a lot.

The Yellow Turban Rebellion was led by Zhang Jiao and his brothers, but it was stopped by the general He Jin. After the death of Emperor Ling, He Jin was killed by court eunuchs known as the Ten Attendants. This caused more chaos. Dong Zhuo, a powerful warlord, took control of the capital, Luoyang. Dong Zhuo ruled harshly.

Cao Cao gathered other warlords to fight Dong Zhuo. After Dong Zhuo was killed, the country fell into civil war as different warlords fought for power. Sun Jian found a special imperial seal. Later, his son, Sun Ce, founded the state of Eastern Wu. Liu Bei and his friends Guan Yu and Zhang Fei wanted to help the people but faced many challenges and battles.

After Dong Zhuo’s rule, Cao Cao became very powerful. He fought against other warlords like Yuan Shao. In a big battle called Guandu, Cao Cao won against Yuan Shao and gained control of northern China. Liu Bei joined forces with Zhuge Liang and later formed an alliance with Sun Quan to fight Cao Cao in the Battle of Red Cliffs, where they won a major victory.

Liu Bei then moved to take control of Yi Province, founding the state of Shu Han. However, tensions grew between Liu Bei and Sun Quan. Guan Yu was captured and killed by Sun Quan’s forces.

Liu Bei tried to get back the lost territories but was defeated in the Battle of Yiling by Sun Quan’s general Lu Xun. Liu Bei died soon after from illness.

After Liu Bei’s death, Zhuge Liang led Shu Han. He made peace with Sun Quan and led successful campaigns against southern tribes. Zhuge Liang also planned attacks against the Wei but died during a battle at Wuzhang Plains.

Over time, the rulers of Wei, Shu, and Wu changed, and internal conflicts weakened them. Eventually, the Jin dynasty conquered both Wei and Wu, ending the long period of fighting known as the Three Kingdoms.

Historical accuracy

See also: List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The book is based on Chen Shou's Records of the Three Kingdoms, with other influences like Liu Yiqing's A New Account of the Tales of the World and the Sanguozhi Pinghua.

Some parts are made up from old stories and the author's ideas, but the book tries to show what life was like during the Three Kingdoms period. Even when the events are not true, they feel real. The book focuses more on history than older plays did, though it still shows some bias toward southern China.

Liu Bei and his friends are shown in a good light, while Cao Cao and Sun Quan are often shown less favorably.

Literary analysis

The book Romance of the Three Kingdoms tells its stories in a special way. It connects tales about the three kingdoms like strands of a rope. This shows how the stories relate to each other.

One big change in the book is how it tells about Zhuge Liang’s southern campaign. The real history describes this as a short event. But in the book, it becomes a long story with seven battles. This shows how hard Zhuge worked.

The book also mixes poems and stories. Poems sometimes repeat what the story says, or they ask questions about it. They help summarize what happened and lead into the next part of the story.

The book shows how different characters’ stories connect. For example, one chapter tells two stories at once. One is about Liu Bei, and the other is about Cao Pi. The poems in this chapter help link these stories together.

The book also explores big ideas like the rise and fall of leaders, and the problems of government. It shows that even the best characters must make hard choices.

Cultural impact

The novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms has had a big effect on culture. Many Chinese sayings we use today come from the story. The way it was written helped create a new style of writing during the Ming period.

The book also mixes in some ideas from Buddhism. For example, one of the main characters, Guan Yu, became respected like a holy figure in Buddhist tradition.

The story has been told again and again in many different ways, like TV shows, comics, and video games. Some young fans write their own stories based on the book.

Translations

Manchu

The Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci enjoyed reading Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin. He learned about Chinese military and political ideas from these books. When his family started the Qing dynasty and ruled China, this book was one of the first Chinese books translated into the Manchu language, along with military guides. It was one of only two Chinese novels printed in Manchu during the Qing dynasty.

A Manchu version of the Romance, named Ilan gurun-i bithe, was first attempted in 1631 by a scholar named Dahai, but he died before finishing it. A full translation was completed in 1647 and printed in 1650 by a group of leaders, including Kicungge and Fan Wencheng, under the prince-regent Dorgon. This was the first known translation of the Romance in any language.

The Manchu version was later translated into several other languages, like Xibe, Mongolian, Korean, Tibetan, and French. The French translation, San-koué-tchy (Ilan kouroun-i pithé): Histoire des Trois Royaumes, was begun by Théodore Pavie but only two books were printed.

Korean

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is very famous in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. In Korea, it is often called the "national novel." It has been changed over time to fit Korean culture.

The original history book Records of the Three Kingdoms was brought to Korea. During the Joseon dynasty, people loved the novel, reading it from handwritten copies and printed books. Some versions, called Ttakchibon, told only parts of the story but made heroes like Zhang Fei and Ma Chao even stronger.

Some scholars did not like the novel because they thought it was not true to history. However, after wars with Japan and the Qing dynasty, the novel became very popular with all readers.

Modern translations started during Japanese rule. Eiji Yoshikawa translated it in Japan and Korea, and Yi Mun-yol translated it in Korean in 1988. Yi’s version has sold over 20 million copies, making it Korea’s best-selling novel ever.

English

Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been translated into English many times.

The first known translation was in 1907 by John G. Steele, who translated one chapter for students in China learning English. Other early translations appeared in magazines.

In 1976, Moss Roberts published a shorter version, including about a quarter of the original story, with maps and pictures. In 2018, Martin Palmer published another shorter version for Penguin Classics, covering all chapters but summarizing some parts.

A full translation was done in 1925 by Charles Henry Brewitt-Taylor. Moss Roberts also published a full translation in 1991 with many helpful notes and maps. In 2014, Tuttle published a new three-volume translation by Yu Sumei.