Tohono Oʼodham

The Tohono Oʼodham are a Native American people who live in the Sonoran Desert. Most of them live in the U.S. state of Arizona, but some also live in the northern Mexican state of Sonora. They are recognized by the United States government as the Tohono Oʼodham Nation.

The Tohono Oʼodham Nation controls a large area called the Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation. This reservation is in the southern part of Arizona and includes parts of three counties: Pima, Pinal, and Maricopa. Their land also reaches into Sonora, Mexico. The Ak-Chin Indian Community also includes some Tohono Oʼodham people.

Name

The Tohono Oʼodham people do not use the name "Papago" anymore. Since the 1980s, they call themselves Tohono Oʼodham, which means "desert people".

Nearby, the Akimel O’odham, another tribe, had a different name for them. Spanish settlers heard this name and called them Pápago. English settlers also used that name.

History

The Tohono Oʼodham lived in what is now southern Arizona and northern Mexico, across much of the Sonoran Desert. Their land reached the San Miguel River to the east, the Gila River to the north, the Colorado River to the west, and the Gulf of California to the southwest. They shared borders with the Seris and Opata peoples.

These lands have wide plains and tall mountains, with very little water. Rain comes mostly in late summer, and winters are mild. The Tohono Oʼodham moved between summer and winter homes, following the water. In summer, they lived on flat areas where they could grow crops using rainwater. In winter, they moved to the mountains where water was more reliable.

The Tohono Oʼodham sometimes had difficult times with the Apache. The first Europeans to record their lands were explorers in the 1530s. The Mission San Xavier del Bac, known as the "White Dove of the Desert," was built in 1700 and is a famous old building near Tucson. The Tohono Oʼodham resisted Spanish attempts to change their ways for many years.

Culture

See also: Montezuma (mythology)

The Tohono Oʼodham share roots with the Akimel Oʼodham (People of the River), known as Pima, whose lands are near Phoenix along the Gila River. Their ancestors lived along rivers in southern Arizona. Old pictographs can be seen on a rock wall near the Baboquivari Mountains.

Debates exist about where the Oʼodham came from. Some think they moved north 300 years ago, while others believe the Hohokam, who lived at Casa Grande Ruins, were their ancestors.

Oʼodham musical and dance activities are simple. They wear white clay. Songs are accompanied by hard wood rasps and drumming on baskets. Dancing involves skipping and shuffling quietly on dry dirt.

Society

Life centered around the family. Women prepared food and gathered most of it, though everyone helped. Older girls fetched water, or the wife did if there were no daughters. Women also wove baskets and made pottery, such as ollas. Men farmed and hunted. Older men hunted larger animals like bighorn sheep, while younger men and boys hunted smaller game. Most communities had a medicine man. Decisions were made by men together, with elders having more say. Children played until age six, then began learning their roles. Grandparents and older siblings were the main teachers.

Marriages were often arranged by parents or older siblings if parents had died. Marriages were usually between villages because close relatives could not marry. A wife usually moved to her husband’s village, but sometimes she stayed if her village needed more help. Polygamy was allowed. Women could leave a marriage if unhappy and return to their village.

Society was very communal. People shared food and supplies with those in need. It was expected that people would help others and then be helped when needed.

The Oʼodham got along well with neighbors but were only loosely connected across their lands. They often gathered with nearby villages and sometimes worked together in conflicts. Gatherings for races, trade, and socializing were common. Gambling was popular, with men and women betting small items.

Subgroups

The Oʼodham had different groups with their own traditions and languages. As of the 1700s, there were probably at least six groups. The following includes seven groups.

• Himuris – Lived along the southern edge of Oʼodham lands, in modern Mexico. They were the first to meet Europeans.
• Hia C-eḍ – Lived along the western border. They spoke a distinct dialect and had large ranges for hunting and gathering.
• Hu:huhla – The oldest group, they lived east of the Hia C-eḍ and were considered “orphans” by other tribes.
• Kohatk – Lived along the northern edge and mixed with the Pima.
• Koklolodi – Lived above the Himuris.
• Sobapuris – Lived between the San Pedro and Santa Cruz rivers. Their lands were taken over by European settlers.
• Totokwan – Lived around Ge Aji Peak, a ceremonial center.

Warfare

The Oʼodham were peaceful and rarely started conflicts. The Apache sometimes raided them for supplies.

Diet

The Oʼodham ate local wild game, insects, and plants. They foraged for plants like ironwood seed, honey mesquite, and hog potato. They grew white tepary beans, peas, and Spanish watermelons. They hunted pronghorn antelope and gathered hornworm larvae. Food was prepared by steaming plants in pits or roasting meat on a fire.

Saguaro cactus fruit was very important. It was made into jams, syrups, and ceremonial wine. The harvest began in June, and families would travel to collect the fruit. The syrup was sometimes fermented for rainmaking celebrations.

Ak cin, or “mouth of the wash,” was a farming method using monsoon rains to water crops.

Lost traditions, modern times

When American settlers moved into the area, they affected Oʼodham traditions. The Dawes Act of 1888 split communal lands. Religious groups built schools and missions. Major farmers started the cotton industry. The government required Native children to attend Indian boarding schools, where they had to speak English and give up their culture.

The current tribal government, created in the 1930s, reflects these changes. The Tohono Oʼodham still speak their language and keep many traditions.

Health

Starting in the 1960s, changes in farming led to a diet high in fat and calories. This caused many to develop type 2 diabetes. Traditional foods like tepary beans and squash could help, but many were lost. Efforts are underway to restore traditional foods and improve health.

The Tohono Oʼodham Nation provides medical care to its citizens. Access can be limited by border restrictions.

Cultural revitalization

The Tohono Oʼodham language and culture face threats but remain stronger than many others. Each February, they hold the Sells Rodeo and Parade. Artists like Michael Chiago and Leonard Chana have gained recognition for their work.

In 2004, Danny Lopez received a heritage award for his work sustaining Oʼodham traditions.

Tucson Indian School

Tohono Oʼodham children attended Tucson Indian School, founded in 1886. Boys learned trades like carpentry, while girls learned sewing. The school grew but closed in 1960.

Tohono Oʼodham Nation

The Tohono Oʼodham Nation is a large area in the Arizona desert. It has eleven districts and is one of the biggest Native American areas in the United States. Many people live there, and the Nation has its own leaders.

The Tohono Oʼodham have lived in the desert for a very long time. In the past, they worked with the government to keep some of their land. Today, their lands include the main Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation and smaller places like the San Xavier Reservation near Tucson.

Tohono Oʼodham Community Action (TOCA)

The Tohono Oʼodham Community Action (TOCA) began in 1996 by Terrol Dew Johnson and Tristan Reader. They wanted to bring back important traditions of the Tohono Oʼodham people. It started in Sells, Arizona, with a small garden and basket-making classes.

TOCA has grown to include two farms, a restaurant, and an art gallery. In 2009, they opened Desert Rain Café to help improve health by serving traditional foods. The restaurant uses ingredients like mesquite meal, prickly pear, and agave syrup. Some popular dishes are Mesquite Oatmeal Cookies and Brown Tepary Bean Quesadillas. The café serves many meals each year.

Basket weaving is important to Tohono Oʼodham culture. Classes teach people how to make baskets, which can take a whole year. The baskets are made from local plants and show the history and traditions of the Tohono Oʼodham nation.

Martin Luther King Jr.'s first visit to an Indian reservation

In 2017, a newspaper told the story of what is believed to be Martin Luther King Jr.'s first visit to an Indian reservation. On September 20, 1959, King gave a speech at the University of Arizona. After the speech, he met a pastor named Rev. Casper Glenn. The pastor showed him photos of a church group that included members of the Tohono Oʼodham tribal group. King wanted to visit the nearby Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation. He went there the next day. The tribal leaders were surprised and honored by his visit. King talked with them and later said he appreciated meeting the people there.

Districts

The Tohono Oʼodham Nation has several districts where people live. Some of these districts are Gu Achi, Pisinemo, Sif Oidak, and Sells District. Others include Baboquivari, Hickiwan, San Lucy District, Gu Vo, Chukut Kuk, San Xavier District, and Schuk Toak.

Notable Tohono Oʼodham

The Tohono Oʼodham people have many talented individuals who have made important contributions. Some well-known people include Annie Antone, who creates beautiful baskets, and Gabriella Cázares-Kelly, who works as an educator and community organizer. Others like Maria Chona and Terrol Dew Johnson are famous for their basketweaving and promoting healthy foods. Juan Dolores helped people learn more about the Tohono Oʼodham language, while Raul Mendoza coached basketball. Ponka-We Victors served as a legislator in Kansas, and Ofelia Zepeda is known for her work as a writer and poet. Augustine Lopez was a leader for the Tohono Oʼodham Nation.