War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

The Soviet–Afghan War and the wider War on terror are different conflicts, and this article is about the American war in Afghanistan. For the Soviet war, see Soviet–Afghan War. For the global military campaign that followed the September 11 attacks, see War on terror. For other uses, see War in Afghanistan.

The war in Afghanistan was a long armed conflict from 2001 to 2021. It began when a United States–led coalition invaded Afghanistan under the name Operation Enduring Freedom. This came after the September 11 attacks, when two airplanes crashed into the Twin Towers in the United States. The attacks were carried out by al-Qaeda, a group based in Afghanistan that was allied with the Taliban. American-led forces supported the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance. Together they pushed the Taliban out of major towns and cities, ending the Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate. In 2004, the U.S.-backed Islamic Republic was set up. By then, the Taliban, led by founder Mullah Omar, had regrouped and started an insurgency against the Afghan government and foreign forces. The war ended when the 2021 Taliban offensive brought back the Islamic Emirate. It was the longest war in United States military history, lasting six months longer than the Vietnam War.

After the September 11 attacks, American president George W. Bush asked the Taliban to hand over Osama bin Laden, the al-Qaeda leader who had planned the attacks, and to close al-Qaeda's camps in Afghanistan. The Taliban refused, and the United States invaded. After the Taliban were removed, the coalition stayed in Afghanistan. It formed the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which was approved by the United Nations. Its goal was to help build a new democratic government that would keep the Taliban from returning to power. A new Afghan Interim Administration was set up, and international rebuilding efforts began. By 2003, however, the Taliban had regrouped and launched a widespread insurgency. Their fighters used asymmetric warfare, including guerrilla warfare in the countryside, attacks on cities, and revenge attacks against people they saw as helping the Afghan government or foreign forces. By 2007, the Taliban had taken back large parts of Afghanistan after a major offensive in the year prior. In response, the coalition sent many more troops for counter-insurgency operations, using a "clear and hold" plan for villages and towns. The number of foreign troops grew very large in 2011.

In 2011, an American secret operation in neighboring Pakistan led to the killing of Osama bin Laden, and NATO leaders began planning how to leave Afghanistan. In 2014, NATO officially ended ISAF combat operations and handed full security responsibility to the Afghan government. Because the Taliban could not be defeated by military means alone, the coalition and the Afghan government led by Ashraf Ghani turned to talks to end the conflict. These efforts led to the United States–Taliban deal in 2020, which set out the withdrawal of all US troops from Afghanistan by 2021. As the troops left, the Taliban launched a large offensive through the summer of 2021 and took back control of Afghanistan, including the capital city of Kabul on 15 August. That same day, Ghani fled the country. The Taliban declared victory, and the war was formally brought to an end. By 30 August, the last American military aircraft departed from Afghanistan, ending the long American-led military presence in the country.

Many people were killed during the war, including many civilians. The fighting also affected the related War in North-West Pakistan. Millions of Afghans had to leave their homes during the conflict. Many returned after the 2001 invasion, but by the fall of Kabul, many Afghans were still refugees, and others were internally displaced, meaning they had to move to other places within their own country. Terrorist groups and pro-republic insurgents have continued to cause conflict since the war, and this has been made worse by an economic and humanitarian crisis.

Names

This conflict from 2001 to 2021 is called the war in Afghanistan. This name sets it apart from Afghanistan's other wars, including the Afghan conflict that it was part of, and the Soviet–Afghan War.

From the view of the West, the war had two parts. From 2001 to 2014, it was the ISAF mission, and most of the fighting was done by coalition forces. From 2015 to 2021, it was the Resolute Support Mission. During this time, Afghan armed forces did most of the fighting against the Taliban. The United States called it Operation Enduring Freedom from 2001 to 2014, and Operation Freedom's Sentinel from 2015 to 2021. It has also been called the US war in Afghanistan. In Afghanistan itself, people simply call it the "war in Afghanistan".

Prelude

Main article: Prelude to the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

The Taliban started as a group of religious students called the Talib. They wanted to end warlordism in Afghanistan and follow Sharia more strictly. In 1996, the Taliban took control of Kabul with help from Pakistan and money from Saudi Arabia. They set up the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. They followed a strict fundamentalist view of Islam, called Deobandi. They did not allow women to work outside the home or go to school. The United Nations (UN) said the Taliban harmed many civilians, including many Shias and Hazaras. By 2001, the Taliban controlled about 90% of Afghanistan. The Northern Alliance held only the northeast corner. According to the 9/11 Commission in the US, al-Qaeda used Afghanistan to train fighters, bring in weapons, and plan attacks. Al-Qaeda had its own camps in Afghanistan and supported other training camps. After the 1998 US embassy bombings were linked to bin Laden, US president Bill Clinton ordered missile strikes on an al-Qaeda camp. The Taliban refused to hand over bin Laden.

On 11 September 2001 (9/11), 19 members of al-Qaeda carried out coordinated attacks in the United States. They took over four airliners. Two planes crashed into the World Trade Center in New York City, and the buildings were destroyed. A third airliner hit the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. The fourth plane, which was aimed at Washington, D.C., crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. Osama bin Laden planned the attacks. The US wanted to hold him responsible, which became the casus belli for the invasion. The US National Security Council agreed that military action would probably be needed. First, Bush warned the Taliban to hand over bin Laden and close their training camps. Taliban founder Mullah Omar refused. He said bin Laden was protected by Pashtun laws of hospitality. The war officially started on 7 October 2001.

Main article: History of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

Main article: United States invasion of Afghanistan

Further information: Taliban insurgency, Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 2003 in Afghanistan, 2004 in Afghanistan, and 2005 in Afghanistan

Main article: 2006 Taliban offensive

Further information: Taliban insurgency, Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006, Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2007, and Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2008

Main articles: Pakistan in the war on terror, Pakistan–United States skirmishes, and Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2009

Impact

Main article: Impact of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

Main article: Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

Main article: Afghan refugees

Main articles: War crimes in Afghanistan and International Criminal Court investigation in Afghanistan

Main article: Opium production in Afghanistan

The Costs of War Project counted many Afghan civilians who were killed in the war. The true number may be higher, because some people died from illness, lack of food or water, and other effects of the war. Several health groups, including Physicians for Social Responsibility, Physicians for Global Survival and International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW), concluded that a very large number of civilians were killed by all sides. Most civilian harm each year was blamed on anti-government groups, including the Taliban. Civilian harm caused by non-Afghan Coalition forces was lower later in the war, after most foreign troops left and the coalition shifted to airstrikes. A study in BMJ Open found that injuries from anti-personnel IEDs were far worse than those from landmines. The journal's press release said these weapons cause unnecessary suffering, which is considered a war crime. Since 1979, millions of Afghans have been forced to leave their homes. Some moved elsewhere inside the country, and others became refugees in other countries. From 2002 to 2012, more than 5.7 million former refugees returned home. In 2021, when the Taliban took over, many Afghans were still refugees, and millions more were internally displaced. Many people were flown out of Kabul airport during the evacuation from Afghanistan.

War crimes were committed by all sides. People were harmed in many ways, including attacks on civilians and the killing of prisoners of war. Some people also lost their property in ways that were not needed for military necessity. The Taliban committed war crimes, including attacks on civilians and using human shields. As of 2011, the Taliban was responsible for most civilian deaths in the war. Crimes by the Coalition, Afghan security forces, and Northern Alliance also harmed civilians and prisoners. Amnesty International accused the Pentagon of hiding evidence of war crimes and unlawful killings. Some well-known incidents were the Dasht-i-Leili massacre, the Bagram prisoner abuse, and the Kandahar massacre. In 2020, the International Criminal Court investigation in Afghanistan formally began. It looked at war crimes and crimes against humanity committed by all parties since 1 May 2013. In 2023, the UK started a public inquiry into reports of alleged unlawful killings by UKSF personnel. In 2000, Afghanistan produced most of the world's opium, which was the Taliban's largest source of money. In July 2000, Mullah Omar banned opium growing, which greatly reduced the harvest. Observers said he may have wanted international recognition and higher prices. During and after the 2001 invasion, the US allied with powerful Pashtun leaders who were involved in drug smuggling. Historian Alfred McCoy said this helped opium growing return on a large scale. Ahmed Wali Karzai, the brother of Hamid Karzai, was alleged to be a major drug trafficker, which he denied. By 2005, Afghanistan produced 90% of the world's opium. In 2022, the Taliban banned opium production again. A 2023 UN report found that poppy growing had dropped by over 95%. Chin State and Sagaing Region of Myanmar became the world's largest producers instead.

Factors leading to coalition defeat

Further information: History of the Afghan Armed Forces (2002–2021)

Observers have said that the mission in Afghanistan had several problems. Its goals were not clear, it did not have enough resources, the groups involved did not work well together, and it focused too much on the central government. It also focused too much on one country instead of the wider region. NATO-led efforts did not build strong government systems, because US policy paid more attention to fighting terrorism. Afghan government forces also relied too much on money from Western countries. Climate change made problems worse and helped the Taliban grow stronger. In 2021, more than 60% of Afghans depended on farming for their living. By the end of the war, Afghanistan was still the world's largest producer of illegal opium. As of 2018, the Taliban earned tens of millions of dollars a year from opium and heroin.

Journalist Jason Burke said that early mistakes made by the US and its allies after the 2001 invasion were one reason the war lasted so long. Steve Coll believes that the decision to invade Iraq in 2003 was a major reason NATO failed to bring stability to Afghanistan. Corruption grew during the 2000s and was not stopped by the US. In 2009, Afghanistan was ranked the world's second most corrupt country. Pakistan was also said to support the Taliban. It grew its economic and military ties with China, partly to depend less on the US. In 2019, The Washington Post published government documents, known as the Afghanistan Papers. They showed that US officials had misled the American public about how hard the war was to win.

Foreign support for the Taliban

Pakistan helped the Taliban win. Pakistan was a close partner of the United States both before and after the 2001 invasion. However, parts of its army and intelligence services had worked closely with Taliban fighters for many years. This help made the fighting in Afghanistan stronger. Taliban leaders found a safe place to live in Pakistan. There, they could do business, raise money, and get medical care. Some officials in Pakistan saw the Taliban as a way to push back against against India.

After the September 11 attacks, Iranian forces led by Qasem Soleimani quietly worked with American officials against al-Qaeda and the Taliban. This teamwork stopped after President Bush gave his "axis of evil" speech on January 29, 2002. In that speech, he called Iran a country that supports terror and a danger to peace in the region. After that, Iran became more and more unfriendly toward American forces in the area. In 2021, terrorism expert Antonio Giustozzi of the Royal United Services Institute wrote that Russia and Iran both helped the Taliban move forward quickly from May to August 2021. They did this by helping to pay for and supply the Taliban, and by making deals with groups and leaders who were close to those countries.

Reactions

Main article: Reactions to the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

Main article: International public opinion on the war in Afghanistan

Further information: Protests against the war in Afghanistan

In November 2001, CNN reported that many people in Kabul felt relieved after the Taliban left the city. Young men shaved off their beards, and women took off their burqas. Later that month, BBC reporter Kate Clark said that "almost all women in Kabul are still choosing to veil." Many people hoped that the Taliban's removal would make them safer and make it easier to get food.

A 2006 poll found that most Afghans supported the American military presence. In that poll, 82% said that overthrowing the Taliban was a good thing. A 2015 survey found that 80% of Afghans believed the US overthrowing the Taliban in 2001 was a good thing. More Afghans blamed the Taliban or al-Qaeda for the country's violence than blamed the US. A 2019 survey by The Asia Foundation found that 13.4% of Afghans had sympathy for the Taliban.

Opinions around the world were mixed. In October 2001, about 88% of Americans and about 65% of Britons supported military action. A poll by Ipsos-Reid from November to December 2001 found that people in some countries approved of US airstrikes, while people in others did not. In 2008, there was strong opposition to the war in Afghanistan in 21 of 24 countries surveyed. The war also led to large protests around the world, which began just before the invasion and have been held every year since. Many protesters felt the bombing and invasion were not right. On 20 March 2010, dozens of organizations held a national march for peace in Washington, D.C.

Aftermath

Main article: Aftermath of the Afghanistan War (2001–2021)

Main articles: Recognition of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and List of decrees by Hibatullah Akhundzada

Main article: Republican insurgency in Afghanistan

Main article: Islamic State–Taliban conflict

On 7 September 2021, the Taliban announced a temporary government. Mohammad Hassan Akhund was named Prime Minister. Fighting did not stop after the Taliban took control of the country. Some groups that oppose the Taliban have continued to fight into 2025. In the 2020 Doha Agreement, the Taliban promised to end their ties with al-Qaeda, but several armed groups still work in Afghanistan. By 2014, ISIS-K had become the largest terror group in Afghanistan. After the 2021 Kabul airport attack, the United States said it could work with the Taliban to fight IS, as part of the International military intervention against IS. Other groups include the Haqqani Network, Al-Qaeda in the Indian subcontinent, Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan, Jundullah, Tehreek-e-Jihad Pakistan, the Turkistan Islamic Party, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, and Jamaat Ansarullah.

At first, the Taliban tried to stop opposing groups by using force. Later, they tried disarmament, peace talks, and offers of forgiveness. After the takeover, many former members of the Afghan security forces were harmed. Many Afghans who had helped the United States stayed in Afghanistan. Some former Afghan special forces who fought alongside British troops have not been allowed to move to the UK. This is connected to a public inquiry into certain UK Special Forces actions. After the takeover, western nations stopped sending humanitarian aid. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund also stopped payments. The Biden administration froze a large amount of money belonging to the Afghan central banks. By November 2021, many people in Afghanistan faced famine, which means not having enough food. In 2022, UN humanitarian chief Martin Griffiths warned that millions of people were at risk of famine. In 2025, the second Trump administration stopped foreign aid and cut funding to the US Agency for International Development (USAID). Many health facilities in the country closed or stopped running.