American frontier

The American frontier, also known as the Old West and popularly called the Wild West, refers to the history, stories, and culture that grew as people moved westward across North America. This movement started with European colonial settlements in the 1600s and lasted until the early 1900s, when the western parts of the country became full states.

President Thomas Jefferson helped encourage this westward movement, especially after the Louisiana Purchase. This idea of moving west became known as "manifest destiny", and it shaped how many Americans thought about expanding the country.

The stories and events from this time have become very important in American culture. Many books, movies, and TV shows are based on the American frontier, making it a key part of how Americans see their history and identity. The adventures, legends, and traditions from this period continue to capture people's imaginations today.

Periodization

Historians have talked a lot about when the frontier era began and ended, and its important parts. Some say the Old West started after the American Civil War in 1865 and ended after the 1890 U.S. census, when the U.S. Census Bureau stopped recording western settlement. Others think it went on until the early 1900s, before World War I.

The idea of the frontier helped shape American culture. The Western United States, especially areas like the Southwest, got a lot of attention from the 1850s to the 1910s. Stories and media often made things seem more exciting than they were.

The frontier was where new settlers met undeveloped land. It moved westward over time, starting from the East Coast in the 1600s. Some places, like Los Angeles and Salt Lake City, were settled far beyond the main frontier line.

Maps of United States territories

Here are some maps showing how the United States grew over time. Each map highlights a different period:

• 1789: The new nation after independence.
• 1819–1820: After the War of 1812.
• 1845–1846: Just before the Mexican–American War.
• 1859–1860: Before the Civil War began.
• 1884–1889: After the Civil War.
• 1912: When all the western territories became states.

The maps use different colors to show states, territories, disputed areas, and other countries.

History

Colonial frontier

Main article: Thirteen Colonies

In the early days of European settlement along the Atlantic coast, the frontier was any part of the interior beyond the settlements. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607.

Different groups, such as the English, French, Spanish, and Dutch, expanded and settled in different ways. The French, for example, set up small villages along the St. Lawrence River, while the Dutch created fur trading posts in New York.

Frontier areas often had poor transportation, making commercial farming difficult. These areas remained based on subsistence farming and had more equal societies with fewer class differences.

New nation

After the Revolutionary War ended in 1781, the United States developed a system for expanding westward. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abolished slavery north of the Ohio River and promised statehood when territories grew large enough, as Ohio did in 1803.

Pioneers moved west into areas like Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina. They lived in simple homes and relied on hunting for food before establishing farms. The land policy of the new nation aimed to grow the economy, avoid losing skilled workers from the East, and distribute land wisely.

Louisiana Purchase

Thomas Jefferson was very interested in expanding the West. His Louisiana Purchase in 1803 doubled the size of the nation. Jefferson also sent explorers like Lewis and Clark to map and study the new lands.

Oregon Trail

To reach the West Coast, many travelers used the Oregon Trail. This overland route stretched over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) and was often dangerous, with risks like disease, harsh weather, and conflicts with Native Americans.

Mormons and Utah

Mormons settled in the valley of the Great Salt Lake after facing persecution elsewhere. They built a community in what became Utah Territory, known for its advanced farming and strong sense of community.

Pony Express and the telegraph

The Pony Express was a fast mail service started in 1860, delivering messages in just ten days. However, it was soon replaced by the transcontinental telegraph, which connected the East and West in 1861.

Bleeding Kansas

In the 1850s, tensions arose over whether the new territory of Kansas would allow slavery. Both pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers moved there, leading to violence. The conflict helped lead to the Civil War.

Civil War in the West

During the Civil War, the West saw several important battles and campaigns. In Missouri, there was guerrilla warfare, and in Texas, Confederate forces tried to expand their control.

Postwar West

After the Civil War, the federal government worked to improve governance in the western territories. New territories were prepared for statehood, and efforts were made to standardize procedures and reduce corruption.

Transcontinental railroads

The first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, connecting the East and West. Built by companies like the Central Pacific and Union Pacific, it brought many workers and changed the way people traveled and settled the West.

Migration after the Civil War

After the Civil War, many people moved west for better economic opportunities. Farmers sought larger, cheaper land, while others looked for new jobs and adventures. However, they faced challenges like harsh weather and limited resources.

Alaska Purchase

In 1867, the United States bought Alaska from Russia. Though developed slowly, discoveries of gold and oil later brought prosperity to the region.

Oklahoma Land Rush

In 1889, the U.S. government opened up land in Oklahoma for settlement. On a single day, thousands of people raced to claim their pieces of land, quickly establishing towns like Oklahoma City.

Indian Wars

Throughout the 19th century, conflicts occurred between Native American tribes and settlers. These wars were fought across the West, with significant battles in states like Arizona and Texas. The U.S. government established forts and reservations to manage these conflicts.

Social history

Democratic society

Western states were often more democratic than those in the East. They were the first to grant women the right to vote and led in progressive reforms.

Urban frontier

Cities like Denver and Butte grew rapidly as centers of trade, transportation, and industry. They attracted diverse populations and became hubs of economic activity.

Race and ethnicity

European immigrants, African Americans, Asians, and Hispanics all contributed to the diverse population of the West. Each group faced unique challenges and opportunities in building new communities.

Family life

Family life on the frontier was crucial for survival. Women played key roles in managing households and ensuring family well-being, while children often helped with chores and tasks.

Law and order

Law enforcement on the frontier varied. Towns often had sheriffs and marshals, while rural areas relied on local militias and posses. Crimes like banditry and feuds were common, leading to the formation of groups like the Texas Rangers.

Cattle

Cattle ranching became a major industry after the decline of bison herds. Ranchers drove herds north to railheads for shipment to markets in the East. The Chisholm Trail was a key route for these drives.

Conservation and environmentalism

As the West developed, concerns grew about protecting natural resources. Conservationists like Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir advocated for preserving forests, parks, and wildlife. Efforts were made to balance economic development with environmental protection.

End of the frontier

By the early 20th century, the frontier as a distinct line of advancing settlement had largely disappeared. The last territories became states, and the era of westward expansion came to an end.

American frontier in popular culture

The stories, art, and music about the American Old West have become very important in American culture. Many artists and writers have been inspired by the real and imagined West. Famous composers like Aaron Copland and Roy Harris created music influenced by these ideas.

The West was first popularized through shows, music, and books in the 1800s. Books called "dime novels" told exciting but often exaggerated stories about heroes and villains, like brave cowboys and brave settlers. These books were very popular and helped create lasting images of the West.

In the 20th century, movies, especially Westerns, became a big part of how people picture the American West. Directors like John Ford made famous films that showed the wide, open landscapes. The cowboy became a well-known symbol, representing independence and bravery. Presidents like Theodore Roosevelt also helped shape these ideas through their writing and adventures. Today, the stories and images of the Old West continue to influence American culture in many ways.

Historiography

Many students of Frederick Jackson Turner became history teachers in western states and shared his ideas about the frontier. Over time, scholars have shown that many stories about the frontier are not completely true, but these stories are still part of local traditions, tales, and books.

In the 1970s, historians began arguing about how to study the frontier. Some believed the frontier shaped all of American history and culture, while others focused only on areas west of the Mississippi River after 1850. They also looked more closely at how different groups, like Native Americans and Hispanics, interacted with white settlers. Today, the study of the American frontier includes many more voices and stories from groups that were left out before.

Environmental history has also become important, looking at how people and nature affected each other during this time.