British colonization of the Americas

The British colonization of the Americas is the history of how England, Scotland, and later Great Britain established settlements and control across North America, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean starting in the late 1500s. The first permanent English colony was founded in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Over the next centuries, many more colonies were created, though most eventually became independent nations.

Early attempts at colonization faced challenges, including the mysterious disappearance of the Roanoke Colony. Important milestones include the arrival of Pilgrim settlers in Massachusetts in 1620 and the expansion into areas like Bermuda after shipwrecks and strategic moves. By the mid-1700s, Britain had expanded its influence through conflicts with other European powers, such as the Anglo-Dutch Wars and wars with France.

The biggest change came with the American Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783 and led many colonies to independence. However, Britain kept some territories and continued to establish new ones, like British Columbia and the Falkland Islands. Over time, most of these remaining colonies also gained self-government and independence, often joining groups like the Commonwealth of Nations. Today, a few areas remain under British control as British Overseas Territories.

Background: early exploration and colonization of the Americas

Further information: Pre-Columbian era, Age of Discovery, and European colonization of the Americas

After Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492, Spain and Portugal began setting up colonies. Soon after, England and France also sent explorers. In 1497, John Cabot, sailing for England, explored the coast of North America, but early attempts to settle did not succeed because they found few valuable resources.

Later, explorers looked for a sea route to Asia but did not find one. Instead, they set up fishing stations and traded with local people. English sailors also began to challenge Spanish ships in the Caribbean Sea. These early efforts laid the groundwork for future English colonies in the New World.

Early colonization, 1607–1630

Further information: English overseas possessions

In 1606, King James I of England gave permission to two groups, the Plymouth Company and the London Company, to create settlements in North America. In 1607, the London Company set up a permanent colony at Jamestown on the Chesapeake Bay. This was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. The early years were very hard, and many settlers didn’t survive. However, the colony grew after they began growing tobacco, which became a very profitable crop.

The same year, a ship called the Sea Venture ran aground near an island group called Bermuda. The people on board built new ships and some stayed to make Bermuda a new settlement. In 1620, a group of Pilgrims, seeking religious freedom, sailed on the Mayflower and founded Plymouth Colony on Cape Cod. They had a difficult first winter but later made friends with the local Wampanoag people, who helped them grow food. Meanwhile, England also started colonies in the Caribbean, with Barbados becoming an important sugar-producing island.

Growth, 1630–1689

Further information: History of the British West Indies

The success of early colonies led to more being established in the Caribbean. By 1660, England had set up sugar colonies on islands like St. Kitts, Antigua, Nevis, and Montserrat. Colonization of the Bahamas began in 1648. In 1655, England invaded and took control of Jamaica, and later captured Tortola from the Dutch in 1670, which later became part of the British Virgin Islands.

During this time, sugar plantations using slave labor became common. The English government valued these islands highly. Many slaves were brought from Africa to work on these plantations, and they became the majority of the population in places like Barbados and Jamaica.

Main article: Thirteen Colonies

Further information: Colonial history of the United States

Establishment of the Thirteen Colonies

Main article: New England Colonies

After Jamestown and Plymouth, more colonies were founded in New England. In 1629, Puritans led by John Winthrop started the Massachusetts Bay Colony. By 1635, about ten thousand settlers lived between the Connecticut River and the Kennebec River. The Connecticut Colony was founded after defeating the Pequot people. Roger Williams, who left Massachusetts, founded the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Because New England was cold and not very fertile, its colonies depended on fishing and trade.

Main article: Southern Colonies

In 1632, Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore founded the Province of Maryland near Virginia. Both Maryland and Virginia became known as the Chesapeake Colonies. They both saw many English settlers arrive. In the mid-1600s, they began importing slaves from Africa, inspired by what was done in Barbados.

In 1663, supporters of Charles II of England established the Province of Carolina. In 1712, it split into North Carolina and South Carolina. The colonies of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina became known as the Southern Colonies.

Main article: Middle Colonies

Dutch traders had set up fur trading posts along rivers like the Hudson River and Delaware River, creating New Netherland with its capital at New Amsterdam. In 1664, English forces took over New Netherland, and it became the Province of New York. The areas of West Jersey and East Jersey were also created. Later, they joined to form the Province of New Jersey.

Charles II of England gave land to William Penn, who named it the Province of Pennsylvania. Penn wanted a place where people could practice their religion freely. Pennsylvania became a popular place for immigrants, and the city of Philadelphia grew quickly.

In 1670, Hudson's Bay Company was created to control the fur trade in a region called Rupert's Land.

In 1695, Scotland tried to start a colony in Panama called the Darien scheme, but it failed due to disease and attacks. This failure helped lead to the union of England and Scotland in 1707, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Expansion and conflict, 1689–1763

Settlement and expansion in North America

After King James II lost power, new rulers William and Mary kept many of his rules for the colonies. This led to more control from the British government over places like Massachusetts Bay Colony, New York, and Maryland. The number of people in the British North America colonies grew quickly during the 1700s. By 1750, about 1.5 million people lived there, mostly as farmers. Big cities such as Philadelphia, New York, and Boston also grew.

Colonists traded things like food, wood, and tobacco for items from Asia and the West Indies. They also traded with Native Americans, who provided fur and skins. As time went on, more people from Europe moved to the colonies, and settlers moved westward into areas like the Ohio River valley.

Conflicts with the French and Spanish

Britain and France often fought over control of North America. The French had built Quebec City as a center for their colony in Canada. These fights included wars like Queen Anne's War and the French and Indian War. In the French and Indian War, the British defeated the French and gained many of their lands in North America. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended this conflict, with France giving up most of its lands east of the Mississippi River to Britain. Spain gave Florida to Britain but received lands west of the Mississippi.

Main articles: Second Hundred Years' War and French and Indian Wars

The Americans break away, 1763–1783

Further information: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War

The British colonies in North America felt strongly that their rights were protected by the British system of government. However, after the expensive French and Indian War, Britain decided the colonies should help pay taxes, like the Sugar Act 1764. This made many colonists unhappy because they wanted equal say in decisions.

Tensions grew until battles in 1775 at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, where colonists fought back. In 1776, they announced their independence with the Declaration of Independence. With help from France, the colonists won key battles, like the Battle of Saratoga, and finally trapped British forces at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781. This led to peace talks and, in 1783, the Treaty of Paris, where Britain gave up most of its land in North America to the new United States.

Second British Empire, 1783–1945

See also: New Imperialism

The loss of many colonies in British America marked the shift from the first to the second British Empire. Britain turned its focus away from the Americas toward Asia, the Pacific, and Africa. Influenced by ideas from Adam Smith, Britain moved away from strict trade rules and began to focus more on growing trade than on owning land.

During the years 1793 to 1815, Britain was often at war, first in the French Revolutionary Wars and then the Napoleonic Wars. Britain took control of many French, Spanish, and Dutch colonies in the Caribbean during these wars. Tensions grew between Britain and the United States because of trade issues and disagreements over sailors. Eventually, this led to the American War of 1812, which ended without major changes to borders.

After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, Britain gained control of several territories outside the Western Hemisphere, including Trinidad, Tobago, British Guiana, and Saint Lucia. The Treaty of 1818 set parts of the Canada–United States border at the 49th parallel and established joint control over Oregon Country. In 1846, the Oregon Treaty split Oregon Country along the 49th parallel, with Vancouver Island going to Britain.

Britain and France made peace after 1815 and mostly avoided wars in the Americas. However, Britain still fought in other places, like the First Opium War in China and dealt with local uprisings. Britain ended slavery in its empire in 1833, which changed the economies of its Caribbean colonies. New workers were brought in from places like India and China to work on plantations.

Establishing the Dominion of Canada

After losing the American Revolutionary War, Britain still kept many colonies in the Americas. Thousands of people who remained loyal to Britain moved to Canada after the war. In 1784, Britain created New Brunswick as a separate colony from Nova Scotia. The Constitutional Act 1791 split Canada into Upper Canada and Lower Canada to reduce tensions between French and British communities.

Britain also expanded its interests along the North Pacific coast. After resolving a dispute with Spain, British explorers like George Vancouver and Sir Alexander Mackenzie mapped new areas. These efforts helped Britain extend its influence in the region.

In response to rebellions in the 1830s, Britain passed the Act of Union in 1840, combining Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. Later, in 1867, the British North America Act, 1867 created the country of Canada from several British colonies. Over time, more areas joined Canada, though Newfoundland did not join until 1949.

British Honduras and Falkland Islands

In the early 1700s, British sailors began using parts of Central America for cutting valuable wood. By the late 1700s, Britain had a small settlement on the Belize River, though Spain did not recognize British control. In 1862, Britain made this area the crown colony of British Honduras.

Britain first tried to settle the Falkland Islands in 1765 but left in 1774. The islands were used by British whalers and sealers. Argentina tried to claim the islands in the early 1800s, but Britain returned and re-established control in 1833. Britain also governed nearby South Georgia Island.

Decolonization and overseas territories, 1945–present

Successful independence movements

See also: Decolonization of the Americas

When the Cold War began in the late 1940s, the British government started planning for its colonies to become independent. They wanted each colony to develop its own democratic government over about 30 years. However, worries about communism made Britain speed up this process. Unlike other European countries, Britain's decolonization in the Caribbean was mostly peaceful.

In 1958, Britain created the West Indies Federation to unite its Caribbean colonies. But it broke apart when Jamaica and Trinidad left. Both became independent in 1962, with Trinidad joining Tobago to form Trinidad and Tobago. Other islands in the eastern Caribbean, along with the Bahamas, gained independence during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Guyana became independent in 1966. Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, changed its name to Belize in 1973 and became fully independent in 1981. There was an unresolved dispute with Guatemala over land claims to Belize.

Remaining territories

Main article: British Overseas Territories

Even though many Caribbean colonies gained independence, some places like Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands chose to stay with Britain. Other territories that remain under British control include the British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, and the Falkland Islands. In 1982, Britain won a war against Argentina when they tried to take the Falkland Islands.

Historically, people in the colonies were considered British subjects. They had the same rights as people in Britain, but they didn’t have representatives in the British government. After World War II, many colonies became independent, and the British government changed the rules about citizenship. Some people from the colonies faced restrictions on moving to Britain.

Today, the remaining territories govern themselves to different extents but rely on the UK for defense and international relations. Many former colonies are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, a group of countries that work together peacefully. Fifteen of these countries still recognize the British monarch, currently King Charles III, as their head of state.

List of colonies

See also: List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom and Territorial evolution of the British Empire

The British established many colonies in North America, the Caribbean, and South America. These colonies eventually became independent countries or joined existing nations. In North America, colonies such as British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and the Thirteen Colonies played key roles in forming modern Canada and the United States.

In the Caribbean and South America, countries like Jamaica, The Bahamas, and Guyana were once British colonies before gaining independence. Today, some areas such as the Falkland Islands and Cayman Islands remain territories of the United Kingdom.