Ancient Macedonian army

The Kingdom of Macedon had one of the most powerful armies in the ancient world. It started small in the Greek world but grew quickly under leaders like Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. They were able to conquer huge areas from Egypt in the west all the way to India in the east.

Philip II changed the army a lot. He made soldiers train all the time, which helped them work together better. He also brought in new ideas and weapons, like a very long spear called the pike or sarissa. This made soldiers stronger in battle. Philip also made cavalry, or horse soldiers, very important for the first time in Greek fighting.

The Macedonian army used many different types of soldiers together, like foot soldiers with long spears, archers, and different kinds of cavalry. This made their battles very effective. They also used siege engines to attack cities. Soldiers came from many places, not just Macedon, including Ancient Macedonians, Thessalian cavalry, and people from the Aegean and the Balkans.

Origins

Philip II of Macedon - Roman medallion depicting the Macedonian king.

If Philip II of Macedon had not been the father of Alexander the Great, he would be known as a great military leader and strategist. Philip created a strong army that helped his son achieve amazing things. Before Philip, the Macedonians were seen as less important by other Greeks. They were strong fighters and had special training.

When Philip took control, he made the army very important. He trained his soldiers often and made them very skilled. Philip also brought people from other parts of Greece to join his army. With the wealth he gained, he could support a large, professional army. By the time he died, Philip had expanded Macedonia's lands and prepared the way for his son's big adventures. One of his clever ideas was to reduce the heavy bags the army carried, making them faster to move.

Troop types and unit organisation

Heavy cavalry

Companion cavalry

The Companion cavalry were the elite soldiers of the Macedonian army. They led important attacks in many battles led by Alexander the Great. They were known for their skill in staying balanced and controlling their weapons even when charging at high speed. Along with cavalry from Thessalia, the Companions were the main heavy cavalry. Central Macedonia was good land for raising horses, and cavalry was important in Macedonian armies from early times. Philip II improved their organization, training, and tactics, making them very effective, especially by using long lances and charging tactics. Early on, Macedonian cavalry used javelins, but later they also used lances.

The Companions were split into groups called ilai, each with 200 soldiers, except the Royal Squadron, which had 300. The Royal Squadron was also called the Agema, meaning "that which leads." Each group was led by an ilarchēs (ilarch). Alexander took eight of these groups with him to Asia, totaling 1,800 men, leaving seven groups behind in Macedon. Later, the Companions were reorganized into larger units called regiments (hipparchies) of 2–3 squadrons. Each squadron was also split into two lochoi. This change allowed the Companion cavalry to grow larger. Alexander no longer organized them by region after this.

The Companion cavalry usually formed a wedge shape when attacking. This shape made it easier for them to move and crash into enemy lines. The point of the wedge could break through enemy groups, and the leaders were at the front. Philip II likely learned this formation from Thracian and Scythian cavalry. The main weapon of the Companion cavalry was a long lance called the xyston, made of cornel wood, with a sword as a backup. They wore armor and helmets in battle.

Even though the Companion cavalry were powerful, Alexander was careful when using them against tight enemy foot soldiers. He usually waited for gaps to appear in the enemy lines before attacking. However, they did succeed in one battle against Greek soldiers fighting for Persia, possibly because those soldiers were already losing hope.

The original 1,800 Companions who went with Alexander to Asia were joined by 300 more from Macedon after the first year of fighting. They usually fought on the right side of the army, where the best soldiers were placed, and they often led the most important attacks under Alexander’s command.

Thessalian cavalry

After defeating leaders Lycophron of Pherae and Onomarchos of Phocis, Philip II became leader of the Thessalian League. When Alexander took over, the Thessalians tried to break free from Macedon, but Alexander quickly brought them back under control. The Thessalians were considered the best cavalry in Greece.

Coin of Perdikkas II showing a Macedonian cavalryman armed with two long javelins

The Thessalian heavy cavalry went with Alexander at the start of his campaign in Asia and continued to help the Macedonians as allies until the end. They fought similarly to the Companion Cavalry but earlier used javelins more. The Thessalian cavalry were known for using rhomboid formations, developed by Jason of Pherae, which let them change direction quickly while staying together. For Alexander’s invasion of the Persian Empire, there were 1,800 Thessalian cavalry, maybe up to 2,000. They usually protected the left side of the army, allowing the main attack on the right. They faced strong attacks at Issus and Gaugamela but held their ground. At Ecbatana, the Thessalians with Alexander’s army were sent home. Some stayed as hired soldiers but were sent home a year later when the army reached the Oxus River.

Other Greek cavalry

Allied Greek states and hired mercenaries also provided heavy cavalry for Macedon. Alexander started his campaign against Persia with 600 Greek cavalrymen, probably in five groups. These cavalrymen were equipped similarly to the Thessalians and Companions but fought in a square formation. The Greek cavalry were not as effective or flexible as the Thessalian and Macedonian cavalry.

Light cavalry

Light cavalry, such as the prodromoi, protected the army’s sides during battles and went on scouting missions. The term prodromoi might have meant any cavalry on scouting or attacking missions, or it might have been a single unit. Besides the prodromoi, other horsemen from subject or allied nations, with different weapons, filled various battle roles. By the time Alexander fought in India, the cavalry changed greatly and included many horse-archers from Iranian peoples like the Dahae.

Prodromoi/Sarissophoroi (cavalry unit)

Scholars differ on where the prodromoi came from. Some think they were Macedonians, like the Athenian prodromoi, who came from the lowest class of citizens. Others think they were from Thrace. Arrian often separates the prodromoi from Paeonian light cavalry, suggesting a specific origin. This uncertainty comes from not fully understanding how the term prodromoi was used. The prodromoi are sometimes called sarissophoroi, meaning "pikemen" or "lancers," which suggests they sometimes used very long lances, though not as long as infantry pikes. Arrian mentions Aretes leading the prodromoi, while Curtius says Aretes led the sarissophoroi. It seems the same unit had both names.

The prodromoi/sarissophoroi acted as scouts when the army was moving. In battle, they protected the right flank of the Companion cavalry. After Persian light cavalry joined the Macedonian army, the prodromoi took on a main battlefield role as shock cavalry. They had four groups of 150 soldiers each with Alexander’s army in Asia.

At Gaugamela, the prodromoi under Aretes helped defeat the Persian left wing cavalry, winning that part of the battle.

Paeonian cavalry

Alexander the Great as a cavalryman. He wears a helmet in the form of the lion-scalp of Herakles. Detail of the so-called Alexander Sarcophagus, excavated at Sidon.

These light cavalry came from Paeonia, a region north of Macedonia. Philip II conquered the Paeonians, and they became tributepayers. Led by their own leaders, the Paeonian cavalry usually fought with the Prodromoi. They had javelins, swords, and unusually, shields. They started with one group but got 500 more soldiers in Egypt and 600 more at Susa.

Thracian cavalry

Mostly from the Odrysian tribe, the Thracian cavalry also scouted when the army moved. In battle, they did similar things to the Prodromoi and Paeonians but protected the left flank of the Thessalian cavalry. The Thracians fought in wedge shapes and had javelins and swords. At Gaugamela, the Thracians had four groups and about 500 soldiers.

Horse archers

In 329 BC, while in Sogdiana, Alexander created a unit of 1,000 horse archers from various Iranian peoples. They were very good at scouting and protecting the army. Riding and shooting arrows, they could attack from a distance. At the Battle of Hydaspes, their arrows helped break up the Indian cavalry and chariots.

Heavy infantry

The Foot Companions

Suitable men from Macedonian farms were chosen for an infantry group called the phalanx. Philip II created it, and Alexander used it to conquer the Persian Empire. These soldiers were called Pezhetairoi, meaning 'Foot Companions'.

Philip II learned tactics in Thebes, where he studied under Epaminondas. The Macedonian phalangite’s gear was influenced by the ‘peltast’ from Athens. The phalangite used a very long spear called the sarissa, along with a smaller shield. Philip may have been inspired by Homer’s writings to organize his foot soldiers better.

Philip turned the Macedonian army from farmers into a well-trained fighting force. Foot Companions were taken from Macedonian farms. Once chosen, they became full-time soldiers. The King had to agree before they could leave. Under Philip, they didn’t get regular pay, but by Alexander’s time, they earned “good pay.” Through lots of training, they could move and fight together perfectly, which surprised enemies.

Based on a damaged fresco in the Kinch Tomb (310–290 BC, Lefkadia), depicting a Macedonian cavalryman wearing a Thracian helmet and wielding a lance. The repainting by Oscar Willerup.

These foot soldiers fought in tight rectangular or square groups, with the smallest unit being the syntagma or speira, having 256 men. They usually stood eight or sixteen deep and thirty-two or sixteen across. Each line of 16 men, called a lochos, was led by a lochagos. Junior officers stood at the back and middle to keep order, like modern NCOs. The syntagma leader fought on the far right. A syntagma had five extra people: a herald, a trumpeter, an ensign, an additional officer called ouragos, and a servant. These helped pass orders in battle. Six syntagmata formed a taxis of 1,500 men led by a strategos, and several taxeis formed a phalanx under a phalangiarch. Alexander had a phalanx of 6 veteran taxeis, totaling 9,000 men. Later, a seventh taxis was added. Antipater, ruling Macedon, had 8 taxeis of less-experienced soldiers.

Each phalangite’s main weapon was a sarissa, a very long pike. It was used with two hands. Greek hoplites used one-handed spears because of their large shields, but the Macedonian phalangite had both longer reach and more force with a two-handed thrust. At close range, long weapons weren’t useful, but a solid phalanx could keep enemies far away; the first five rows’ weapons all reached past the front, so there were more spear points than targets. Rear-row soldiers raised their sarissas to block overhead attacks. Phalangites also carried swords for close fighting if the phalanx broke. The phalanx was weak on the sides and back.

Phalangites had shields, often called ‘Telamon shields,’ smaller and less curved than Greek hoplite shields. They wore helmets and greaves but didn’t wear body armor under Philip II. Later, body armor appeared, as seen on the Alexander Sarcophagus, but that figure might show a hypaspist, not a phalangite. The Military Decree of Amphipolis mentions phalangites wore the kotthybos, a type of defense that isn’t fully known.

Alexander didn’t use the phalanx as the main attack force but to hold and weaken the enemy while his heavy cavalry attacked chosen targets or exposed flanks, usually after driving away enemy cavalry. The phalanx needed open flat land to work well, as rough terrain would break up the formation.

The phalanx carried little baggage, with one servant for every ten men. This let them march very fast, sometimes causing enemies to surrender because they weren’t expecting them so soon. This speed came from Philip’s training, which included long forced marches.

Hypaspists

The Hypaspists were the elite foot soldiers of Macedon. The word means ‘shield-bearers’. In battles like Gaugamela, they guarded the right flank of the phalanx and linked the phalanx to the Companion cavalry. They did many special jobs for Alexander, often with the Agrianians, Companions, and some phalangites. They were important in sieges close to Alexander. The Hypaspists were from good Macedonian families, and their top leaders formed Alexander’s foot bodyguard.

Before 331, the hypaspist regiment was in units of 500, but by 327, it was split into three battalions of 1,000 men, each further divided like the Foot Companions. Each battalion was led by a chiliarch, with the whole regiment under an archihypaspist.

They were probably equipped like traditional Greek hoplites, with thrusting spears, large round shields, and swords (either xiphos or kopis). This made them great for broken battles, sieges, and special missions. Their armor changed based on the mission. For fast marches or fighting in rough terrain, they wore little more than helmets and cloaks for speed. In heavy fighting, like sieges or battles, they wore linen or bronze armor. This mix of gear made them very flexible. Their numbers were kept up by adding veteran soldiers from the phalanx.

After the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, a new name appeared for hypaspistai: the argyraspides (‘silver shields’). They served after Alexander’s time and might have been from Asia. For argyraspides and chalkaspides (‘bronze shields’), Malcolm Errington says these titles were probably not official functions. Sekunda says Alexander’s pike soldiers totaled about 12,000, with 3,000 elite hypaspistai and 9,000 pezhetairoi. Hammond and Walbank think Diodorus Siculus’s figure of 32,000 infantry is most reliable but disagree with his cavalry number of 4,500, saying it was closer to 5,100.

A heavy cavalryman of Alexander the Great's army, possibly a Thessalian. He wears a cuirass (probably a linothorax) and a Boeotian helmet, and is equipped with a scabbarded xiphos straight-bladed sword. Alexander Sarcophagus.

Greek hoplites

An ancient painting shows Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece, from the 4th century BC

Alexander’s army included Greek heavy infantry from allies in the League of Corinth and hired mercenaries. These soldiers had the traditional hoplite gear: thrusting spears, bronze-faced Argive shields, and body armor. They looked almost like the hypaspists. In battle, Greek hoplites had a less active role than Macedonian phalangites and hypaspists. At Gaugamela, the Greek infantry formed the defensive back of Alexander’s box formation, while Macedonians were in front. They were important in stopping Persian cavalry from surrounding the Macedonian army and helped when some Persian horsemen broke through to attack the baggage.

Light infantry

Peltasts

Peltasts from the Agrianes, a Paeonian tribe, were the elite light infantry of the Macedonian army. They often protected the right flank, placed to the right of the Companion cavalry. They were usually part of any fast-moving mission. Other nationalities, like Thracians, also provided peltasts. Thracian peltasts did the same as Agrianians but for the left wing. It’s unclear if Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians as javelin throwers, slingers, and archers in Macedonian armies from Philip II’s time were allies or hired mercenaries.

Peltasts had javelins, swords, light shields, and sometimes helmets. They were good at skirmishing and often guarded flanks of heavier infantry. They stood in open lines against heavy infantry, throwing javelins and dodging counter-attacks because they had no heavy armor or shields. However, they were vulnerable to cavalry and often fought best on broken ground where cavalry couldn’t move and heavy infantry couldn’t keep formation.

Archers

The use of Asiatic soldiers under Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great used soldiers from many different places, including Arachosia, Bactria, Parapamisadae, Sogdia, India, and Scythia. These troops were part of his army when he reviewed it in 324 BC. Alexander was impressed by 30,000 Persian soldiers who learned to fight like his Macedonian troops. At one time, his army had about 120,000 fighting soldiers, not counting those who followed the army.

There was some disagreement among Alexander's Macedonian soldiers when he included Persian troops, especially young Persians from noble families who were trained to fight like Macedonians. Alexander planned to use local soldiers to rule Asia, but he passed away before he could put this plan into action. After his death, his successors mostly recruited Greeks and Macedonians for their armies.

Arms and armour

Philip II's soldiers were equipped with shields, helmets, and long spears called sarissas. Some also wore heavier armor made of metal. Soldiers in Alexander the Great's army wore similar armor.

Most soldiers carried swords for close combat. There were three main types of swords: the xiphos, kopis, and machaira. Cavalry soldiers used long spears called xystons, which had two points so they could be used from either end.

The hunter on the right is wielding a kopis cutting sword, the hunter on the left holds a scabbarded xiphos straight sword. Both types of sword were used by Macedonian cavalry and infantry. Lion Hunt mosaic from the Macedonian capital Pella, late 4th century BC.

Phalangites, a type of soldier, used very long spears called sarissas. These spears were over 6 meters long and had a special weight at the end. They also used swords and shorter spears. Light soldiers, like those from Thrace, used javelins and small shields made of leather and wood.

Helmets were made of bronze and came in many styles. Some looked like hats, while others had face coverings. Cavalry soldiers sometimes wore open-faced helmets. Body armor was usually made of stiff linen or, for important leaders, of bronze plates shaped like a muscular body.

The main shield for phalangites was round and made of bronze on the outside and wood or leather inside. Elite soldiers used larger, more curved shields. Light soldiers used small, round or oval shields made of leather and wood.

Siege warfare

Further information: Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella

The Macedonians improved their ways of attacking cities with strong walls. This was a big change from before, when Greek armies could not break through such defenses. To help them break through city walls, Philip II brought in skilled engineers like Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella. They built special war machines and tools that could throw big bolts.

Artillery

Main article: Greek and Roman artillery

The new war machines made a big difference. These machines could throw heavy stones and bolts to attack city walls and defenders. One type, called the oxybeles, shot bolts, while another, called the lithobolos, could throw very heavy stones—up to 80 kg (180 lb)! These machines helped break through walls and defend soldiers.

Other siege engines

The Macedonians also used tall, moving towers called helepolis during sieges. These towers let soldiers get closer to enemy walls without being easily hurt. The towers were covered to protect them from attacks. They also used special tools called rams to break down gates or knock holes in walls, making it easier to capture cities.

Battle tactics

The Macedonian army was one of the first to use special groups of soldiers together in battles. This helped them work as a team to defeat their enemies. Philip II learned from other armies and used new ways to fight, like a special shape called the 'embolon'. This gave their cavalry better movement and an advantage in fights.

In different battles, the Macedonians changed their tactics based on who they were fighting and where the battle happened. But some of their main ideas stayed the same, from early battles in 358 BC to later ones in 331 BC. For example, in the Battle of Erigon Valley, Philip used his cavalry to surprise the enemy and break their formation, which helped the Macedonians win.

Later developments and decline

Further information: Antigonid Macedonian army, Seleucid army, Ptolemaic army, Pyrrhic army, and Hellenistic armies

After Alexander the Great’s empire broke apart, Macedon became a kingdom again. Its army, the Antigonid Macedonian army, kept many ideas from the armies of Philip and Alexander. Other armies from this time, called Hellenistic armies, also used similar tools, plans, and ways of fighting.

One famous fight happened when Pyrrhus of Epirus beat the Romans in 280 BC. Even though he won, his army lost many fighters. Later, these armies started to rely more on a special group of foot soldiers called the phalanx. These soldiers used longer spears, but this made them slower and less able to change plans quickly. When they met new armies from places like Rome, which used different methods, the old ways of fighting were not as strong. The phalanx’s time as the main fighting force ended when Roman ways of battle helped defeat Macedon in the 2nd century BC.

Macedonian Navy

Macedon was not a big sea power, even when Philip II ruled. But when Alexander took over, he led a big group of Greek cities. In 334 BC, Alexander crossed a narrow sea channel called the Hellespont with his army. He used a fleet of 120 ships and had many soldiers from different places, including Macedon, Athens, and other Greek cities.

Alexander needed to capture the strong city of Tyre, which was on an island close to the coast. Because Tyre had many ships, Alexander built a special road to reach the island. Later, he got more ships from other cities and finally had enough to block Tyre's harbors. With his new fleet, he used special weapons to break through Tyre's walls and his soldiers took over the city. After these events, Alexander's navy kept growing, and later it won against Athens' ships after Alexander passed away.